Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Class 12 Important Extra Questions History Chapter 4

Here we are providing Class 12 History Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 4 Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings: Cultural Developments. Class 12 History Important Questions are the best resource for students which helps in class 12 board exams.

Class 12 History Chapter 4 Important Extra Questions Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings: Cultural Developments

Thinkers, Beliefs, and Buildings Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Name the Begum of Bhopal who provided manely for the preservation of Sachi Stupa?
Answer:
Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jahan Begum.

Question 2.
Which thinkers emerged in the world during the mid-first millennium BCE?
Answer:
Zarathustra in Iran, Kong Zi in China, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle in Greece, and Mahavira and Gautam Budha in India.

Question 3.
When was Rigveda compiled?
Answer:
Between C. 1500 and 1000 BCE.

Question 4.
What is Rigveda consist of?
Answer:
Rigveda consists of hymns in praise of many deities such as Indra and Soma.

Question 5.
Who performed rajasuya and Ashvamedha sacrifices?
Answer:
They were performed by Chiefs and Kings with the help of Brahmins.

Question 6.
What is meant by Kutagarashala?
Answer:
A hut with a pointed roof.

Question 7.
Who questioned the authority of the Vedas?
Answer:
Mahavira and the Buddha questioned the authority of the Vedas.

Question 8.
Who started Jainism?
Answer:
Rishabdev was the first Tirthankar and Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankar of Jainism.

Question 9.
Name the religious texts of Jainism.
Answer:
Angas are the religious texts of Jainism.

Question 10.
Where did Buddhism spread?
Answer:
India, China, Korea, Japan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia.

Question 11.
What was the name given to Buddha at the time of his birth?
Answer:
Siddhartha.

Question 12.
Who was called the Enlightened One?
Answer:
Gautama Buddha was called the Enlightened one.

Question 13.
What is the world according to Buddhist philosophy?
Answer:
The world is transient and constantly changing.

Question 14.
What was Sangha?
Answer:
Sangha was an organization of monks of Buddhism who became teachers of Dhamma.

Question 15.
What names were given to males and females who entered Sanghas?
Answer:
Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis.

Question 16.
Except for Sanchi, where was another stupa of Buddhism?
Answer:
At Amravati.

Question 17.
Which sources are used by historians to reconstruct the exciting world of ideas and believes from 600 B.C.E. up to 600 C.E.?
Answer:

• Buddhist, Jaina, and Brahmanical texts.
• Large and impressive body of material remains including monuments and inscriptions.

Question 18.
Where is the stupa of Sanchi situated? Explain any one of its features.
Answer:
The Sanchi stupa is a wonderful ancient building in the state of Bhopal. It is situated in a village named Sanchi Kanakhera. This village is on the top of a hill. In fact, the stupa is nearly twenty miles north-east of Bhopal and looks like a crown.

Question 19.
What was the daily routine of the Buddhist monks?
Answer:

• The Buddhist monks led a simple life.
• They depended on offerings and alms. They kept only a bowl with them to accept food.

Question 20.
Why did Siddhartha adopt the path of Sanyas or renunciation?
Answer:
Having seen an old man, a sick man, and a dead man, Siddhartha (Buddha) realized that this world was a home of sorrows and sufferings. He realized that the decay and destruction of the human body was inevitable. However, he felt relieved when he saw a homeless mendicant. He decided that he would also adopt the same path. So, he left his palace and set out in search of truth and enlightenment.

Question 21.
How was the internal functioning of the Buddhist sangha?
Or
Mention the internal functioning of the Buddhist sanghas. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (O.D.))
Answer:
The internal functioning of the Buddhist sangha was based on the traditions of ganas and sanghas. According to this, the consensus was arrived at through mutual discussions. If they were unable to reach a consensus then decisions were taken by a vote on the subject.

Question 22.
In the primitive times, what places were considered sacred by the people? Give three points.
Answer: From the earliest times, people regarded those places as sacred that had the following features:

1. The sites with special trees.
2. The sites with unique rocks.
3. The sites having awe-inspiring beauty.

Question 23.
What are stupas?
Answer:
The stupas are the sacred mounds associated with Buddha. It is a Sanskrit word, which means a heap. It is a simple semi-circular mound of Earth. Later on, it was called anda.

Question 24.
Name any two features of the stupa at Amaravati.
Answer:

1. The stupa at Amaravati was the largest and the most magnificent stupa of the Buddhists.
2. It had high gateways and beautiful statues.

Question 25.
What is meant by Hagiography?
Answer:
Hagiography is a biography of a saint or religious leader. It generally praises the saint’s achievement and may not always be literally accurate. They are important because they tell us about the beliefs of the followers of that particular tradition.

Question 26.
What type of thinking did archaeologist H.H. Cole had about the shifting of ancient monuments?
Answer:
Cole was totally against taking away ancient monuments. He considered this loot as suicidal. He was of the view that museums should have plaster-caste facsimiles of the sculpture whereas the originals should remain at their actual place.

Question 27.
When was the stupa of Sanchi discovered? What was the condition of its gateways at that time?
Answer:
Stupa of Sanchi has discovered in 1818 C.E. It had four gateways. Three of these gateways were in good condition but the fourth gateway was lying scattered at its actual place.

Question 28.
What differences of opinions were there among the historians regarding the sculpture of a woman surrounded by the lotuses and the elephants found at Sanchi?
Answer:
Some historians believed that this is the figure of Maya, the mother of Buddha, while some identify her with a popular goddess, Gaja Lakshmi. Gaja Lakshmi was the goddess of good fortune who is associated with elephants.

Question 29.
Define garbhagriha and Shikhar.
Answer:
Garbhagriha: It was an early temple (small square room) where the image of the deity was kept. Worshippers entered from its single doorway to offer worship to the image.

Shikhar: A tall structure built over the central shrine was known as Shikhar.

Question 30.
What were Upanishads? Which ideas were found in them to show that people were curious?
Answer:
Upanishads were texts of deep ideas associated with life, death, and almighty. They tell us that people were curious about the meaning of life, the possibility of life after death and rebirth. They also wanted to know what is the relation between rebirth and past actions.

Question 31.
How Buddha’s and Mahavira’s ideas about trials and tribulations of worldly existence were in contrast to that of Brahmanical ideas?
Answer:
According to Brahmanism, an individual’s existence was determined by his or her birth in a specific caste or gender. His trials and tribulations were associated with it. On contrary to it, Buddha and Mahavira suggested that men and women themselves should try to attain liberation from trials and tribulations of worldly existence.

Question 32.
Who were Tirthankaras?
Answer:
According to Jaina traditions, there were twenty-three other teachers, before Mahavira, which were known as Tirthankaras. It literally means those who guide individuals across the river of existence.

Question 33.
How did Buddha attain true enlightenment?
Answer:
Buddha left pleasures of life at a young age in search of true enlightenment. He wandered about for years and kept discussing with different thinkers. In the end, he himself decided to find his way. He meditated for several days under a Banyan tree at Bodh Gaya. In the end, he attained enlightenment and came to be known as the Buddha.

Question 34.
Who was Vardhman Mahavira? How was he enlightened?
Answer:
Vardhman Mahavira was the most important teacher of Jainism. He was a Kshatriya prince. He was related to the Licchavi clan of Vajji sangha. He left his home at the age of 30, started to live in forests, and meditated for 12 years. Then, he got enlightened.

Question 35.
What do you mean by the concept of Trideva’s or three deities in Hinduism?
Answer:
The meaning of Trideva in Hinduism is by three deities out of which the first one is the creator, the second one is the sustainer and the third one is the destroyer. These three are the natural rules of the whole universe. Brahma is the creator of the universe, Vishnu takes care of it and Mahesha is the destroyer of evil.

Question 36.
Why did European scholars consider the images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas as the best examples of Indian art of sculptures?
Answer:
Buddha and Bodhisatta images were very much similar to Greek images. European scholars were very much familiar with Greek traditions which is why they considered these images as the best example of the Indian art of sculpture.

Question 37.
Why Buddhism became popular?
Answer:

• Buddhism was a simple religion that had no place for superstitions and other rituals.
• Buddhism was propagated in the Prakrit language used by common masses.
• Many kings became patrons of Buddhism.
• Buddhist Bhikkhus were individuals with great character.

Question 38.
Who was Ajivikas?
Answer:
Ajivikas were the supporters of materialism. They started fatalism in Buddhism and were given financial help by Ashoka the Great.

Question 39.
Mention how, according to Jainism, one can free himself from the cycle of Karma. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (O.D.))
Answer:
According to Jainism, the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through Karma. If one is to escape this cycle of Karma, one must practice asceticism and penance. It is only possible if one renounces the world. So, one has to live in a monastery to attain salvation.

Question 40.
Mention any four social groups from which the followers of Buddha came. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (D))
Answer:

1. Kings
2. Wealthy men
3. Grihapatis
4. Humbler folk: workers, slaves, craftspeople.

Question 41.
Mention the contents of Jatakas. What do they depict? (C.B.S.E. 2010 (D))
Answer:
Jatakas contain several animal stories. These were used as symbols of human attributes. Actually, Jatakas are the stories of earlier birth (Boddhitsava) of Mahatma Buddha.

Question 42.
Mention any two ways through which the Gandatindu Jatakas describe the political relations between the King and his subjects. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (D))
Answer:

1. The story indicates that the relations between the King and his subjects could often be strained due to the demand for high taxes from them.
2. Escaping into the forest by the subjects remained an option as reflected in the Tataka story.

Thinkers, Beliefs, and Buildings Important Extra Questions Short Answer

Question 1.
Where were the most ancient buildings located in Bhopal state? How was the eastern gateway of the stupa of Sanchi saved from being taken away?
Answer:
The most wonderful and ancient buildings are at Sanchi Kanakhera, a small village under the brow of a hill some 20 miles north-east of Bhopal.

Europeans, in the nineteenth century, were very much interested in the Sanchi Stupa. The Eastern gateway of this stupa was in very good condition and was the center of special attraction for foreigners. The French wanted to preserve it in a museum in France. That is why they sought permission from Shahjehan Begum. For a while, the Englishmen also made such efforts. However, fortunately, both the English and the French were satisfied with its plaster-cast copies. In this way, originals remained at the site.

Question 2.
Why the mid-first millennium. B.C.E. is regarded as the turning point in the world’s history?
Or
“The mid-first millennium B.C.E. is often regarded as the turning point in ^ the world history.” Justify the statement. (C.B.S.E. 2011, 2016 (D) (OD))
Answer:
The mid-first millennium B.C.E. is regarded as a turning point in the world’s history as it saw the emergence of many thinkers in different parts of the world. Thinkers like Zarathustra in Iran, Kong Zi in China, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in Greece, and Mahavira and Buddha in India emerged in this age.

They tried to understand the mysteries of existence and the relation between human beings and cosmic order. This was the time when new kingdoms were emerging in Ganga valley. Social and economic life was changing. All these thinkers were trying to understand these developments as well.

Question 3.
“Around 6th century B.C.E., any particular sect could grow and shrink over time.” Elucidate the statement by giving a proper reason.
Answer:
There is a mention of 64 sects or schools of thought in the contemporary Buddhist texts. We get a glimpse of lively discussions and debates from these texts. We come to know that the teachers traveled from one place to another, trying to convince each other and the common masses about the validity of their philosophy and the way in which they understood the world.

These debates generally took place in the Kutagarashala (a hut with pointed roof) or in groves where traveling teachers stayed. If any teacher or philosopher succeeded in convincing one of his rivals then the followers of his rival became his disciples. That is why, with time, support for a particular sect could grow and shrink over time.

Question 4.
Give a brief description of the teachings of Buddhism.
Or
Explain briefly the teachings of the Buddha. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (D))
Or
Describe briefly the teachings of Mahatma Buddha. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (O.D.))
Or
Describe the teachings of the Buddha. (C.B.S.E. 2011 (D))
Or
“Buddha laid stress on right conduct and values.” In the light of the above message, explain his teachings on life. (C.B.S.E. 2014 (£)))
Or
Explain the main teachings of Buddha. (C.B.S.E. 2018)
Or
“Describe the teachings of Buddha and development of Buddhist ideas and practices by the first century C.E. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (O.D.))
Answer:
The main teachings of the Buddha areas

1. The world is transient. It is constantly changing. It is also without any soul. There is nothing eternal or permanent in it.
2. Sorrow is intrinsic to human existence. Human beings can get rid of all worldly troubles by following the path of moderation between severe penance and self-indulgence.
3. The existence of God-whether it is or not-was irrelevant in the earliest forms of Buddhism.
4. Buddha believed that the decay and the destruction of the human body were inevitable.
5. Buddha believed that the social world was the creation of humans were: It had no divine origin. So, he advised kings and chapatis to be humane and ethical. Buddha emphasized that the individual effort could transform social relations.
6. Buddha believed that righteous action was the means to escape the cycle of re-birth.
7. According to the Buddha, the salvation or the attainment of self-realization (Nibbana) could be possible if a person ended his ego and desires.
8. The Buddha advised all his followers to be their own lamps. They must work out their own salvation or liberation.

Question 5.
“The symbols used in the sculpture at Sanchi emerged out of popular traditions.” Give examples.
Answer:
Many sculptures at Sanchi were not inspired by Buddhist ideas. For example, there are many fine depictions of animals. These animals included elephants, horses, monkeys, and cattle. Most of these animals were carved to create lively scenes to draw maximum viewers. They were used as symbols of human attributes. For example, elephants signified strength and wisdom.

Then, there is another motif in which a woman is surrounded by lotuses and elephants. The animals are sprinkling water on her. They seem to perform an abhisheka or consecration. Some historians consider this woman as Maya, the mother of Buddha. However, a few other historians consider this woman as a symbol of Gajalakshmi, the goddess of good fortune. Then, there are many pillars that depict a serpent. James Fergusson, a modern art historian, considered Sanchi to be a center of tree and serpent worship. In other words, most of the symbols were derived from popular traditions.

Question 6.
What was the Bodh Sangha? Discuss its characteristics.
Answer:
Buddha became very popular and many people became his disciples. So, Buddha founded a Sangha, which was an organization of monks. These monks served as teachers of Dhamma. They lived a simple life. They possessed only the essential things, which were required for their survival. For example, they kept only a bowl to receive food once a day. They lived on alms. So, they were known as bhikkhus.

1. Admission of women in the sangha: Earlier only men were allowed to join the Sangha. Later on, the women were allowed admission to the sangha. It could be possible because of the persuasion of Ananda, one of the dearest disciples of Buddha. Mahaparajapati Gotami, the foster-mother of Buddha, was the first woman who was admitted to the Sangha as a bhikkhuni. Many women became teachers of Dhamma. They became this or respected women as they had attained liberation.

2. Equal status for all: The followers of the Buddha came from many social groups. They included wealthy and strongmen like the kings and Brihaspati. Many of his followers were from the humble folk such as workers, slaves, and craft people. So, all the members were regarded as equal in the Sangha. All had to shed their earlier identities on becoming bhikkhus and bhikkhunis.

3. The functioning of the sangha: The sanghas were based on the traditions of ganas and sanghas. Discussions were held but all decisions were taken after reaching the consensus. In case there was no consensus, the decisions were taken on the basis of votes.

Question 7.
Why is the sixth century B.C.E. considered very important in Indian history?
Or
Give two reasons why the sixth century B.C.E. is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (D))
Or
Why is the sixth century B.C.E. often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history?
(C.B.S.E. 2015 (D))
Answer:
The 6th century B.C.E. is considered the most important in the history of India on account of the following reasons :
1. The Vedic tradition lost its grip in the sixth century B.C.E. There was the importance of meditation because of the increasing significance of Upanishads. People were curious to find new ways of seeking nirvana or salvation or self-realization. Consequently, many new philosophical ideas emerged in society.

2. Due to the emergence of new philosophical ideas, many new religious communities took birth. They were about 62 in number. Out of these, Jainism and Buddhism influenced the people the most. As a result, there was a change in the nature of Indian society.

3. Jainism and Buddhism emphasized meditation and self-control. Their views were synonyms to the views expressed in the Upanishads. So, the philosophy of the Upanishads became quite popular.

Question 8.
Give reasons for the emergence of new religious sects during sixth-century B.C.E.
Answer:
Many new religious sects emerged in North-Eastern India during the sixth century B.C.E. Following were their main reasons for emergence :

1. Complexity in Vedic religion: Earlier, Vedic religion was very simple but gradually its rule became very complex. So, people wanted to have a simple religion.

2. Caste system and untouchability: Shudras were badly hated by the upper three castes. This lower class of society wanted to have another religion, which could give them their rightful place

3. Difficult language: All the famous texts of Vedic religion were in the Sanskrit language. General masses were unable to understand this language.

4. Birth of great men: Two great men were born in the sixth century B.C.E.—Mahavir and Mahatama Buddha. They brought some reforms in Hinduism and presented in a new form. However their teachings took form of two new religions, which became very popular as Jainism and Buddhism.

Question 9.
What was the impact of Jainism on Indian society ?
Or
Explain the most important idea of Jainism and its impact on Indian thinking. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (D))
Answer:
The most important idea of Jainism is that the whole of the world is animated. All stones, rocks and water have life.

Impact on Indian thinking: Jainism had great impacts on the Indian society. Jainism denounced the caste system. As a result, the caste system started to decline. When Brahmanas observed the popularity of simple rules of this sect, they also left the customs of animal sacrifice, rituals and other evils. As a result, Vedic religion again came into a simple form. Jainism gave stress on non-violence.

That is why its followers became vegetarian and left eating the flesh of animals. Jainas built great temples and Maths in memory of their Tirthankars. Jaina temple of Dilwara, Jaina temple of Mt. Abu, Ellora caves, and Jaina temples of Khajuraho are the finest examples of this art. This religion helped in making the progress of literature of many languages like Kannada, Hindi, Gujarati, and Marathi.

Question 10.
What was the impact of Buddhism on Indian society?
Answer:

1. Moral of people become very high. They left many bad habits like lying, theft, criticism of anyone, etc.
2. The eating habits of people changed drastically. People adopted the concept of non-violence and left eating flesh completely. They become vegetarian after adopting this religion.
3. Many stupas, Maths, viharas were built because of Buddhism. All these are the finest examples of architecture of that age.
4.  Many texts, related to the teachings and life of Mahatama Buddha were written. As a result, the Indian literature developed to a great extent.
5. Buddhism influenced the state-policies of many kings. For example, Ashoka, under the influence of Buddhism, made an objective of his life-the welfare of the public. In the same way, Kanishka and Harsha also did a lot for the welfare of the public.

Question 11.
Why Jainism was less popular in comparison with Buddhism?
Answer:
There were some of the reasons for Jainism being less popular in comparison with Buddhism and these were :

1. Jainism gave stress to asceticism and penance in which one has to live for many days without eating or drinking anything. Common people were not been able to live such a hard life.
2. Followers of Jainism hardly gave stress on spreading its teachings.
3. The concept of non-violence given by this religion took a very strict form.
4. Like Buddhism, Jainism hardly got any help or protection from the state
5. The principles of Buddhism were more simple than that of Jainism. That is why more and more people joined Buddhism and Jainism lost its importance.

Question 12.
Write a note on Gautama Buddha.
Or
Describe how Buddha’s first journey into the outside world transformed his life. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (D))
Answer:
Gautama Buddha was born in 566 B.C.E., at Kapilvastu. His childhood name was Siddhartha. His father’s name was Shudhdhodhan and his mother’s name was Mahamaya. His mother died after few days of his birth. His father built a beautiful palace for him but he never liked anything. So, his father married him to princess Yashodhara. Even a son was born to them but still, he was not happy.

He was deeply anguished when he saw an old man, a sick man, and a corpse. He wanted to know the reasons for these sorrows, so he left the palace and set out in search of his own truth. He meditated for six years and finally attained enlightenment. After this, he comes to be known as the Buddha. He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Benaras. Here, five persons became his followers. Later on, his followers increased rapidly. He attained the Mahanirvana at Kusinagara at the age of eighty years.

Question 13.
Describe the similarities between Jainism and Buddhism.
Answer:
Following were the main similarities between Jainism and Buddhism :

• The founders of both religions were Kshatriya Prince. Both of them left their houses and meditated a lot. In this way, they both were enlightened.
• Both the religions emerged in the form of reaction to Hinduism. Both Lord Mahavira and the Buddha opposed the prevailing evils of Hinduism and kept very simple rules of religion in front of the public. That is why the teachings of both took the form of different religions.
• Both the religions gave stress on non-violence. According to them, giving physical or mental pain to any living being is a sin.
• Both the religions denounced the caste system. According to them, no one is inferior or superior on the basis of caste.

Question 14.
What were the dissimilarities between Jainism and Buddhism?
Answer:
Following were the main dissimilarities between Jainism and Buddhism.
1. Both religions have different methods of adopting non-violence. According to Buddhism, we should not physically or mentally hurt any living being. But Jainism took a very strict form of non-violence. According to it, hurting any living non-living being is against non-violence.

2. Both religions have different views regarding the methods to be adopted for achieving salvation. According to Buddhism, one should follow Eight Fold Path to attain Nibbana. On the other side, Jainism believed in strict meditation to achieve salvation.

3. Both religions have different religious texts. Popular texts of Buddhism are Tripatak’ and ‘Jatakas’. But popular texts of Jainism are ‘Ang’ and ‘Upang’.

4. Buddhism greatly spread in foreign countries and even today one-third of the world’s population follow this religion. But Jainism is confined only within the limits of India.

Question 15.
Write a note on Bhagvatism.
Answer:
Pragmatism is a form of Vaishnavism. The top-most deity of this sect was the son of Devki, Vasudev Krishna. This sect spread to a very large area till the second century B.C.E. An inscription found at Vidisha district of Madhya Pradesh revealed that one Greek ambassador in India, Heliyodrus was the follower of Lord Krishna. Few inscriptions found in Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh mention that Bhagavatism also spread over there. From this, it is clear that, like Buddhism, Bhagavatism also attracted foreigners. The philosophy of this sect is mentioned in the ‘Bhagavat Gita’.

Question 16.
Discuss the contribution of Buddha and Jain communities in Indian art and literature.
Answer:
In Indian art and literature, the followers of Buddhism and Jainism adopted Prakrit, which was a language of the common people. Both the communities composed their literature in this language. As a result, the Prakrit language became very rich and prosperous. It gave birth to many regional languages. Out of these, Shaurseni, which helped in the genesis of Marathi, is worth mentioning.

The Jains composed many of their important works in the Upbransh language. They also prepared their first grammar in this language. However, most of the Jain literature is in the manuscript. It is unpublished. There are many such manuscripts in Jain monasteries at Gujarat and Rajasthan.

In the Middle Ages, the Jains made abundant use of the Sanskrit language. They wrote many books in this language. They also played a great role in the development of the Kannada language. They also composed many books in the Kannad language.

Like the Buddhists, the Jains were also not worshippers of the idols in the early stages. But later on, they started worshipping statues of the Tirthankars. They also got built large statues. They were erected mainly in Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh. The Jains played a praiseworthy role in the art and sculpture of the Middle Ages.

Question 17.
What were the reasons for the popularity of Buddhism?
Or
Describe the causes of the spread of Buddhism.
Or
“Buddhism grow rapidly both during the lifetime of the Buddha and also after his death.” Justify the statement. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (D))
Or
Explain briefly the causes of the rapid growth of Buddhism during and also after the lifetime of Buddha. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (O.D))
Answer:
Buddhism originated in sixth-century B.C.E. This religion became very popular rapidly because of the following reason:

1. Teachings of Buddhism were very simple. Even common masses were able to understand them easily.
2. Mahatama Buddha gave his teachings in the language of the common masses. As a result, a number of people started to follow Buddha.
3. Mahatama Buddha severely denounced the caste system. As a result, many lower caste people adopted this religion.
4. People were very much impressed by the good character of Buddhist monks. As a result, they became followers of Buddhism.
5. Buddhism got protection from many great kings like Ashoka and Harsha. Buddhism not only spread in India but abroad as well because of the efforts of its patrons.

Question 18.
Describe similarities and diss¬imilarities between Hinduism and Buddhism.
Answer:
Similarities:

1. Both the religions believed in Karma theory and accepted that an individual takes birth again and again because of his Karmas or actions.
2. Both the religions believed in morality, truth, and simple life.
3. The main objective of both religions is to attain Nibbana or salvation.
4. Both religions give stress on the sense of tolerance.

Dissimilarities:

1. Hinduism believed in the authority of God and worship by considering it as all-powerful. But Buddhism is mum about God.
2. Buddhism, like Hinduism, did not accept caste discrimination, the importance of Brahmans and Sanskrit, the superiority of Vedas, etc.
3. Hinduism believed that Nibbana could be attained through yajnas, sacrifice, prayer, and other rituals. But Buddhism hardly believed in these things.
4. Buddhism gives enough stress on non-violence and is against eating other animals. But Hinduism hardly gives too much stress on non-violence.

Question 19.
“Except sculptures, paintings were a very important source of understanding the past.” Elucidate the statement by giving an example of paintings of Ajanta.
Answer:
Stone sculptures survive for quite a long time. That is why they are most easily available to historians were: But other means of communication, like paintings, were also used in the past. Those paintings which have survived best are on the walls of caves. Out of those, paintings from Ajanta (Maharashtra) are the most famous.

The paintings of Ajanta depict stories from the Jatakas. These include a depiction of courtly life, processions, men and women at work and festivals. The technique of shading was used by the artists to give a three-dimensional quality. Some of the paintings looked extremely naturalistic.

Question 20.
Describe the growth of temple architecture in the early Indian period.
Or
Describe the main features of early temples. How did the chief sculpture of Kailash Temple at Ellora express his amazement after its completion? (C.B.S.E. 2009 (D))
Or
Describe the main features of temple architecture in early India. (C.B.S.E. Sample Paper 2011)
Or
Describe briefly the features of early temples made during the period when stupas were built in Sanchi. (C.B.S.E. 2011 (D))
Answer:
In the early period, the central points of development in the temple sculpture were as under:

1. The temples came into existence almost at the same time when the stupas were developed at Sanchi.
2. The early temples were in the form of a small square room which was called the Garbhagriha. It had a single doorway through which the worshippers entered the temple to worship the images of gods or goddesses.
3. A tall structure was gradually built over the central shrine. It was called Shikhara.
4. The walls of the temples were often decorated with beautiful sculptures.
5. Some of these temples were hollowed out of huge rocks, they looked like artificial caves. In the 8th century, the temple of Kailashnatha was the culminated form of such temples. It was developed by cutting the whole hill.

The chief sculptor of the Kailash Temple of Ellora expressed his amazement after his completion with these words, “Oh, how did I make it!”

Question 21.
What were the main characteristics of Bhakti?
Answer:
Bhakti meant deep devotion towards any god or goddess. The tradition of Bhakti became quite popular after the Mauryan period. Its features were as follows:

1. Those who followed the path of Bhakti believed in pretensions. They emphasized individual worship with deep devotion.
2. Those who followed the path of Bhakti believed that the worship should be true. God appears in the form in which the devotee wants to see him. The god or goddess can also be in human form. They can even exist in the form of a lion, a tree, r any other shape. As society accepted this view, the sculptors started making beautiful statues.
3. The gods and goddesses were given special respect. Their idols were installed in the temples.
4. The tradition of Bhakti inspired expression through pictorial art, sculpture,and craft.
5. The path of Bhakti was open for all whether the rich or the poor, the men or the women, the upper caste or the lower caste.

Question 22.
Explain what happened to the Amaravati Stupa and why? (B.S.E. 2008 (O.D.))
Or
Explain why the Stupa at Sanchi survived but not at Amaravati. (C.B.S.E. 2018)
Answer:
Amaravati Stupa was discovered all of a sudden. It was the most beautiful and largest stupa of the Buddhists. In 1854, the Commissioner of Guntur (Andhra Pradesh) visited the Stupa of Amaravati. He took many statues and idols of this place to Madras. In that decade, many stones of Amaravati were taken to different places.

Some of the stones reached the Asiatic Society of Bengal at Calcutta. Many of them reached Indian Offices at Madras. A few ones were even taken to London. Many statues of Amaravati adored the gardens of the British officials. In reality, every new official of this region carried away the stones and idols on the plea that their predecessors had also done so. As a result of this, the Stupa of Amaravati was shattered.

In the case of Sanchi, it was well preserved by the Begums of Bhopal along with the British. They gave away a lot of money to preserve Sanchi but this did not happen in the case of Amaravati.

Question 23.
Explain how in the case of Vaishnavism, cults developed around the various avatars of the deity. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (D))
Answer:
In the case of Vaishnavism, cults developed around the different avatars of the deity. Within this tradition, ten avatars were recognized. These ten avatars were the forms that the deity was believed to have taken to save the world from the disordered destruction. It was so because the world was dominated by evil forms of different times. It is also likely that these different avatars were popular in different parts of the country. Recognizing every local deity as a form of Vishnu was one way of creating a more unified religious tradition.

Question 24.
Describe briefly the early Stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (D))
Answer:
The Sanchi Stupa is the most wonderful ancient building in the state of Bhopal, It is situated in a village named Sanchi. Kanakhera. This village is on the top of a hill. In fact, the stupa is nearly twenty miles north-east of Bhopal and looks, like a crown. The Stupa at Sanchi is the best-preserved monument. It is a wonderful sculpture and has been an important center of Buddhism. Its discovery has changed our perception of the early time of Buddhism.

Question 25.
Critically examine why the stupa at Sanchi survived while Amaravati stupa did not. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (O.D.))
Answer:
Archaeologist H.M. Cole believed that museums should have plaster-case facsimiles of sculpture, whereas the originals should remain where they had been found. Unfortunately, Cole was unable to convince the authorities about Amaravati but his plea for in-Site preservation was adopted in the case of Sanchi. As a result, Sanchi survived but Amaravati did not.

Perhaps Amaravati was discovered before scholars understood the value of the find and realized how critical it was to preserve things where they had been found instead of removing them from the site.

Sanchi was discovered in 1818. At that time, three of its gateways were still standing. The fourth gateway was lying on the spot where it had fallen. The mound was in good condition

Then it was suggested that the gateway be taken to either London or Paris. But due to a number of reasons, Sanchi was kept as it was and so it stands. On contrary to it, mahachaitya at Amaravati is now only a little mound, whose glory has been lost.
Answer:
According to Buddhist teachings, the greatest aim of man’s life is to attain Nibbana (Nirvana). Nibbana literally means the extinction of desire. In other words, the end of the desire leads to the end of human suffering. It is also a state of peace and tranquility that a man can attain. It can be achieved by following the Eight-fold Path. According to Buddhist tradition, his last words to his followers were, “Be lamps unto yourselves as all of you must work out your own liberation.”

Question 27.
Describe how Buddha’s teachings have been reconstructed ‘ from the stories of Sutta Pitaka. (C.B.S.E. 2011 (O.D.))
Answer:
Sutta Pitaka is an important text of Buddhism. The Buddha’s teachings have been reconstructed from the stories found mainly in the Sutta Pitaka. Although few stories describe his miraculous powers, others suggest that the Buddha tried to convince people through reason and persuasion rather than through displays of supernatural power.

For example, when grief-stricken women whose child had died came to Buddha. He gently convinced her about the inevitability of death rather than bring her son back to life. These stories were narrated in the language spoken by ordinary people so that these could be easily understood.

Question 28.
Describe the ideas of the Buddha and Lord Mahavira on the authority of Vedas. (C.B.S.E. 2011 (O.D.))
Answer:
Buddha and Lord Mahavira were respectively the founders of Buddhism and Jainism. Both raised questions about the authority of the Vedas. They suggested that men and women themselves could try to attain liberation from the trials and tribulations of worldly existence. This was in marked contrast to the Brahmanical position, wherein, individual’s existence was thought to be determined by his or her birth in a specific caste or gender.

According to Buddhist tradition, his last words to his followers were, “Be lamps unto yourselves as all of you must work out your own liberation”. Both the Buddha and Lord Mahavira opposed animal sacrifice and the performing of yajnas.

Question 29.
Explain how the ideas of Puranic Hinduism developed in different ways within the tradition. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (O.D.))
Or
Describe the factors that led to the growth of Puranic Hinduism in India during the 6th century B.C.E. (C.B.S.E. 2014 (O.D.))
Answer:
Puranic Hinduism originated from the notion of a Saviour. Two traditions were part of Hinduism- Vaishnavism, and Shaivism. Vishnu was the principal deity in Vaishnav tradition and Lord Shiva was regarded as the chief God in Shaivism. In both traditions, special emphasis was laid on the worship of a specific deity. In this type of worship, the bond between the devotee and God was seen as one of love and devotion. It is called Bhakti.

Incarnation or Avtarism: Various cults were developed around various avatars of Vishnu in Vaishnavism. Ten avatars were recognized in this tradition. It has been believed that whenever the world is threatened by disorder and destruction because of the dominance of evil forces, the deity takes avatars to save the world in different forms. Probably different avatars were popular in different parts of the country. All the local deities were recognized as a form of Vishnu and Vaishnavism became a more unified religious tradition.

Question 30.
‘Righteous action is the means to escape from the cycle of rebirth and philosophy of life. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (D))
Answer:
The Buddha emphasized individual agency and righteous action as the means to escape from the cycle of rebirth and attain self-realization and Nibbana (nirvana), literally the extinguishing of the ego and desire-and thus end the cycle of suffering for those who renounced the world. According to Buddhist tradition, his last words to his followers were: “Be lamps unto yourself as all of you must work out your own liberation.”

Thinkers, Beliefs, and Buildings Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Describe the Tirthankaras of Jainism. Discuss their main teachings about Jainism.
Answer:
Jainism has 24 Tirthankaras. It had the following most important Tirthankaras :
1. Rishabhnath. He was the first Tirthankara of Jainism. According to tradition, he was a king. He left his throne for his son named Bharat.

2. Pasharvnath. He was the 23rd Tirthankara of Jainism. He was the son of Ashavsen, the King of Kashi. He renounced the world at the age of thirty. He attained true enlightenment after a deep meditation for only three months. He spent the rest of his life as a Dharam Guru. He attained Nibbana at the age of a hundred.

3. Vardhman Mahavir. He was the 24th and the last Tirthankara of Jainism. He was born at Vaishali in the 6th century B.C.E. His childhood name was Vardhman. The name of his father was Siddharth and the name of his mother was Trishala. He was married to Yashodhara when he was quite young and was blessed with a son. He left his house at the age of thirty and practiced penance for many years. He attained enlightenment at the age of forty-two. He spent the rest of his life preaching religion. He attained Nibbana at the age of seventy-two.

Teachings of Jainism and Tirathankars. The religion that the Tirathankars preached came to be known as Jainism. The main teachings of this religion are as follows :

1. Tri-Ratna. According to Jainism, the ultimate aim of human life is the attainment of Nirvana or salvation. There are three means to attain this nirvana—pure knowledge, pure character, and pure philosophy. These three principles of Jainism are known as the Tri-ratan.
2. Belief in Penance. The followers of Jainism believed in asceticism and penance. They gave more and more torture to their bodies. They believed that salvation could be achieved by giving more and more pain to the human body.
3. Non-Violence. Jainism has emphasized ahimsa or non-violence in life. The followers of this religion believed that all things of this world are animate. So they considered it a sin to cause any injury to any human being, animal, plant, or insect.
4. No Faith in God. The followers of Jainism do not believe in God though they accept its existence. They worship their Tirathankars in place of God.
5. No Faith in the Vedas. The disciples of Jainism do not consider the Vedas as having divine knowledge. They do not consider the means of salvation mentioned in the Vedas as important. They believed that yajnas were futile.
6. Belief in Soul. The followers of Jainism accept the existence of the soul. According to them, the soul is immortal. Though it is in the body, yet it is distinct and different from the body.
7. No Faith in Caste System. The followers of Jainism do not believe in Casteism. According to them, all people are equal. No one can be high or low on the basis of caste.
8. Belief in the Theory of Karma. According to Jainism, the cycle of birth and re-birth is shaped through Karma. The next birth depends on the deeds done in the present life. So we should perform good deeds.
9. Attainment of Salvation. According to Jainism, salvation means that the soul should be free from the bond of Karmas. When the cycle of Karma ends, the individual attains salvation.
10. Emphasis on Righteous Conduct. Mahavir inspired all his disciples and followers to lead a high world life. He advised all to beware of anger, greed, jealousy, theft, and unethical deeds.

Question 2.
How were the Stupas discovered? Comment on their export citing examples of the Stupas at Amaravati and Sanchi.
Answer:
The Stupa of Amaravati was found all of a sudden. In 1796, a local Raja wanted to build a temple. He stumbled upon the ruins of the Stupa at Amaravati. He decided to use the stone. Then he thought that there might be a treasure buried in that hill-like place. After many years, this site was visited by Colin Mackenzie, a British official. He found many pieces of sculpture. He made detailed drawings of them. But all his reports remained unpublished.

Walter Elliot, the Commissioner of Guntur (Andhra Pradesh) visited Amaravati in 1854. He collected many sculpture panes and took them away to Madras. These sculpture panes were later on known as the Elliot Marbles as they were named after his name. He also discovered the remains of the western gateway. He concluded that the structure at Amaravati was very large and magnificent.

In the 1850s, some of the slabs from Amaravati were taken to the Asiatic Society of Bengal at Calcutta. Some other slabs were taken to the India office in Madras. A few others were taken to London. These slabs of sculpture adorned the gardens of a few British administrators. In fact, whenever a new official came in the area, he removed a few sculptures from the site on the plea that earlier officials had done the same.

Export of the Stupas at Sanchi and Amaravati

A few archaeologists had a different view about the export of Stupas at Sanchi and Amaravati. According to H.H. Cole, “It seems to be a suicidal and indefensible policy to allow the country to be looted of original works of ancient art.” He believed that the original pieces of sculpture should not be dislocated. Rather all the museums should have plaster cast facsimiles of the sculpture. However, Cole failed to convince the officials about the importance of Amaravati. But his views about Sanchi were accepted. Hence, the Stupa at Sanchi survived whereas the Stupa at Amaravati could not.

Why did Sanchi survive whereas Amaravati did not?
Answer:
Amaravati was discovered earlier than Sanchi. But the scholars at that time could not realize the importance of preserving such monuments. They did not understand that these things should have been preserved where they had been found. They should not have been removed from the site.

Sanchi was discovered in 1818. At that time, three of its four gates were intact. They still stood in a good condition. The fourth gateway had fallen down. The entire mound was in good condition. No doubt some people suggested that the gateway should be taken either to Paris or London. But at last, Sanchi was kept as it was. On the other hand, the mahachaitya at Amaravati became an insignificant little mound. It had lost much of its past glory.

Question 3.
How did Puranic Hinduism grow? Give its main features.
Or
Explain how the ideas of Puranic Hinduism developed in different ways within the tradition. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (O.D.))
Answer:
Puranic Hinduism originated from the notion of a Saviour. Two traditions were part of Hinduism-Vaishnavism and Shaivism. Vishnu was the principal deity in Vaishnav tradition and Lord Shiva was regarded as the chief God in Shaivism. In both traditions, special emphasis was laid on the worship of a specific deity. In this type of worship, the bond between the devotee and God was seen as one of love and devotion. It is called Bhakti.

Incarnation or Avtarism: Various cults were developed around various avatars of Vishnu in Vaishnavism. Ten avatars were recognized in this tradition. It has been believed that whenever the world is threatened by disorder and destruction because of the dominance of evil forces, the deity takes avatar to save the world in different forms. Probably different avatars were popular in different parts of the country. All the local deities were recognized as a form of Vishnu and Vaishnavism became a more unified religious tradition.

Sculptures: Some of the avatars represented in sculptures of other deities were also made. Shiva was represented by the ‘Linga’ but he was also represented in human form in many sculptures. All these representations of deities were based on a complex set of ideas. Their attributes and symbols were depicted from their headdresses, ornaments, and weapons or auspicious objects the deities hold in their hands, how they are seated, etc.

Stories of Puranas: In order to understand the meaning of these sculptures, historians have to be familiar with the stories associated with them. Some stories are found even in the most of the stories of Puranas were developed through mutual contracts of people. Priests, merchants, common men, and women used to move from one place to another and used to exchange their beliefs and ideas. For example, Vasudeva-Krishna was an important deity of the Mathura region. But during many centuries, his worship spread to different parts of the country as well.

Question 4.
How Buddhist texts were prepared and preserved?
Or
Explain how the Buddhist texts give a glimpse of discussion and debates among people of different schools of thought. (C.B.S.E. 2011 (D))
Answer:
Buddha used to give teachings through debate and discussion. Men, women, and children attended these discussions and discussed what they heard. None of his teachings were written down during his lifetime. After his death, his followers called a council of elders at Vaishali. This council compiled all of his teachings. These compilations were known as Tripitaka which literally means the three baskets to hold different types of texts. Firstly they were transmitted orally and then written and classified according to their subject matter and length.

Tripitaka: Three pitakas are inlcuded in Tripitaka-Vinay Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma pitaka.

• Vinay Pitaka is the collection of rules and regulations for those who joined the Sangha or monastic order.
• Buddha’s teachings were included in Sutta Pitaka.
• Philosophical matters are dealt with in Abhidhamma Pitaka.
  Each Pitaka consists of many individual texts. Later on, Buddhist scholars wrote commentaries on these texts.

Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa: When Buddhism spread to new lands like Sri Lanka, other texts like Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa were written. These texts contain regional histories of Buddhism. Some of these texts had biographies of Buddha. Most of the oldest texts were in the Pali language but later on, texts were also written in the Sanskrit language.

Preserving Buddhist text: When Buddhism spread to east Asian countries, then many pilgrims like Fa Xian and Xuan Zang traveled from China to India. They took many texts to their country where they were translated by many scholars. Indian Buddhist teachers also traveled to different countries.

They carried Buddhist texts with them to disseminate the teachings of Buddha. For many centuries, these manuscripts were preserved in monasteries of different parts of Asia. Scholars also prepared modem translations from Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan texts.

Question 5.
Explain the structural and sculptural features of the Sanchi Stupa. (C.B.S.E. 2015 (D))
Answer:
Sanchi Stupa is considered among the best-preserved monuments of the time. It is one of the most important centre of early Buddhism.

The Structure of Stupas

The Stupa is a Sanskrit word meaning a heap. It is a simple semi-circular mound of earth. Later on, it was also called as anda. Slowly and steadily, its structure became complex because an attempt was made to balance the round and square shapes. Above the anda, it had the harmonica, a balcony-like structure. This balcony represented the abode of the gods. Near the harmonica, was a mast called the Yashti. It was often surmounted by a Chhatri or an umbrella. Around the mound, there was a railing.

It separated the sacred place from the secular world. The Stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut have stone railings. This railing was like bamboo or wooden fence. It had four gateways, which were richly carved and installed in four cardinal points. The worshippers mostly entered through the eastern gateway. They walked around the mound in a clockwise direction keeping the mound on right imitating the sun’s course through the sky.

The Sculpture of Sanchi Stupa

The sculpture depicts a rural scene, with thatched huts and trees. The sculpture at Sanchi identifies it as a scene from the Vessantara Jataka. This is a story about a generous prince who gave away everything to a Brahmana and went to live in the forest with his wife and children. Early sculptors did not show Buddha in human form but as symbols.

• The empty seat was meant to indicate the meditation of the Buddha.
• The stupa was meant to represent the mahaparinibbana.
• Another symbol was the wheel, which indicated the first sermon of the Buddha, delivered at Sarnath.

Some of the sculptures at Sanchi were not directly inspired by Buddhist ideas. These include beautiful women swinging from the edge of the gateway, holding onto a tree. According to a popular belief, she is a representation of Shalabhanjika in Sanskrit.

This woman’s touch caused trees to flower and bear fruit. This auspicious symbol was used for the decoration of the stupa. Shalabhanjika motif suggests that many people who turned to Buddhism enriched it with their own pre-Buddhist and non-Buddhist beliefs, practices, and ideas. At Sanchi Stupa, many animals are carved into lively scenes derived from Jataka tales. These animals have human attributes. For example, an elephant denotes strength and wisdom.

The motif of Gajalakshmi or Maya-a a woman surrounded by lotuses and elephants sprinkling water on her as if performing abhisheka. She is regarded as the goddess of fortune. Other motifs include that of serpent worship derived from other popular traditions.

Question 6.
How did Sutta-Pitaka reconstruct the philosophy of ‘ Buddhism? Mention about Buddhist Tipitaka. (C.B.S.E. 2015 (O.D.))
Answer:
Sutta Pitaka is an important text of Buddhism. The Buddha’s teachings have been reconstructed from the stories found mainly in the Sutta Pitaka. Although few stories describe his miraculous powers, others suggest that the Buddha tried to convince people through reason and persuasion rather than through displays of supernatural power. For example, when a grief-stricken woman whose child had died came to Buddha.

He gently convinced her about the inevitability of death rather than bring her back to life. These stories were narrated in the language spoken by ordinary people so that these could be easily understood. According to Buddhist philosophy, the world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing; it is also soulless (anatta) as there is nothing permanent or eternal in it. Within this transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence.

Humans can rise above the worldly troubles between severe penance and self-indulgence.

Buddha regarded the social world as the creation of humans rather than of divine origin. He advised kings and chapatis to be humane and ethical. Social relations can be transformed at the individual level.

The Buddha emphasized individual agency and righteous action as a means to escape from the cycle of birth and rebirth and attain self-realization and Nibbana, to remove ego and desire and end the cycle of suffering and resource the world.

Buddha used to give teachings through debate and discussion. Men, women, and children attended these discussions and discussed what they heard. None of his teachings were written down during his lifetime. After his death, his followers called a council of elders at Vaishali. This council compiled all of his teachings.

These compilations were known as Tripitaka which literally means the three baskets to hold different types of texts. Firstly they were transmitted orally and then written and classified according to their subject matter and length.

Tripitaka or Tipitaka: Threepitakas are included in Tripitaka – Vinay Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.

• Vinaya Pitaka is the collection of rules and regulations for those who joined the Sangha or monastic order.
• Buddha’s teachings were included in Sutta Pitaka.
• Philosophical matters are dealt with in Abhidhamma Pitaka.

Each Pitaka consists of many individual texts. Later on, Buddhist scholars wrote commentaries on these texts.

Thinkers, Beliefs, and Buildings Important Extra Questions HOTS

Question 1.
Distinguish between fatalists and materialists.
Answer:
Fatalists belonged to the Ajivika tradition. According to them, everything in life was pre-destined and could not be changed. Pleasure and pain cannot be changed in the course of life. They can neither be lessened nor increased. On the other hand, the materialists belonged to the Lokayat tradition. They considered the talk of gifts and donations as a doctrine of fools. They considered all such things as an empty lie. So, they did not believe in alms, sacrifice, or offerings. They wanted to enjoy life to the maximum and had no belief in the next world.

Question 2.
According to Buddhist philosophy, what is this world?
Answer:
According to Buddhist philosophy, the world is transient. It is constantly changing. It is soulless. It has nothing permanent and eternal. It is mortal.

Question 3.
According to the Buddhist tradition, what is the meaning of Nirvana?
Answer:
According to the Buddhist tradition, Nirvana means an escape from the cycle of birth and rebirth. It means attainment of self-realization. Literally, it signifies the extinguishing of ego and desire. It means the end of the cycle of suffering for those who renounce the world.

Question 4.
Who were Chaityas?
Answer:
The word ‘Chaitya’ has been derived from the word ‘Chita’. The Hindi word ‘Chita’ meant a funeral pyre and by extension a funerary mound. In the Buddhist literature, Chaityas were those sacred places that were associated with the life of Buddha. For example, the Buddhists consider Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, and Kushinagar as the Chaityas.

Question 5.
List any two points of difference between Mahayana and Hinayana.
Answer:

1. Hinayana was the traditional form of Buddhism whereas Mahayana was its modern form.
2. The Hinayana tradition followed the path of old, respected teachers. That is why it was called Theravada. However, Mahayana had a new way of thinking.
3. Literally, the Mahayana meant the ‘great vehicle’ whereas the Hinayana meant the ‘lesser vehicle’.

Question 6.
What new questions the philosophers of Vedic tradition and outside were thinking in the 6th century B.C.E.?
Or
Explain the importance of new questions and debates that began from the sixth century B.C.E. regarding Vedic traditions and practices of sacrifices. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (O.D.))
Answer:
The Upanishads are the texts of the Vedic tradition. They are the store-houses of many new ideas. They show that the people were curious to know the meaning of life. They were also eager to know about the possibility of life after death and rebirth. The issues of rebirth and the past deeds were hotly debated.

All the Vedic thinkers were concerned to understand and express the nature of the ultimate reality. A few thinkers outside the Vedic tradition were also raising the question of whether the ultimate reality was single or plural. The people had also started speculating the significance of the sacrificial tradition. Hence, there was an emergence of a thoughtful environment.

Question 7.
What was the method of the symbol of Buddha sculptures? Why was it difficult to understand these symbols?
Answer:
Many early sculptors showed the presence of Buddha through symbols instead of showing him in the human form. For example, the empty seat became the symbol of the meditation of Buddha. The symbol of the wheel was also used quite frequently.

This symbol stood for the first sermon of the Buddha, delivered at Sarnath. Actually, such sculptures cannot be understood very easily. For example, the tree does not stand just for a tree but it symbolizes an event in the life of the Buddha. To understand such symbols, it is necessary for historians to understand the traditions of those who produced these works of art.

Question 8.
Many rituals, religious beliefs and practices were not recorded in a permanently visible form as monuments or sculptures or even paintings.” Critically examine the statement. (C.B.S.E. 2012 (O.D.))
Answer:
Many rituals, religious beliefs, and practices were not recorded in a permanent, visible form as monuments or sculptures, or even paintings. These included daily practices, as well as those associated with special occasions. Many communities and people may not have felt the need for keeping lasting records, even as they may have had vibrant traditions of religious activities and philosophical ideas.

Actually, people do like to preserve or record those things which are visible. They don’t want to record those things which are not visible and that’s why rituals and religious beliefs and even practices remain no more with the passage of time.

Question 9.
“The notion of a savior was not unique to Buddhism.” Comment. (C.B.S.E. 2012 (O.D.))
Answer:
The notion of a savior was not unique to Buddhism. We find the same ideas being developed in different ways within a tradition that we now consider a part of Hinduism. In the case of Vaishnavism, cults developed around the various avatars or incarnations of the deity.

Ten avatars were recognized within the tradition. These were forms that the deity was believed to have assumed to save the world whenever it was threatened by disorder and destruction by evil forces. It is likely that different avatars were popular in different parts of the country. Recognizing each of these local deities as a form of Vishnu was one way of creating a mere unified religious tradition.

Question 10.
Is it easy to understand visual traditions? Which methods were used by European scholars to understand our visual traditions?
Or
Why did the 19th-century European scholars find it difficult to understand the Indian sculpture in ancient times? How did they try to solve the problem? (C.B.S.E. 2008 (O.D.))
Answer:
We have had a glimpse of rich visual traditions, stone architectures, sculptures, and paintings. A lot has been destroyed and lost over the centuries. Even then what remains has been preserved and conveys a sense of the visions of the artists who created these spectacular works. But it is not easy to understand what they wanted to convey. We cannot completely understand the fact that what these images meant to people who saw them and worshipped them.

Efforts of the European Scholars: When the European scholars saw a few sculptures of Gods and Goddesses in the 19th century, they were not been able to understand the background and importance of these sculptures. Sometimes they were horrified by grotesque figures with multiple arms and heads or with a combination of human and animal forms.
Many times they even hated these sculptures. But still, they made the following efforts to understand those grotesque figures:

Comparison with Greek Tradition: Scholars compared these figures with a familiar tradition. This tradition was the art tradition of ancient Greece. While they hardly considered Indian sculptures as superior like Greek sculptures, even then they were encouraged by the discovered images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas. These sculptures were found mainly from northern western cities like Taxila and Peshawar. These regions were ruled over by Indo-Greek rulers in the second-century H.C.F. These sculptures were closest to Greek statues. Because these scholars were very much influenced by Greek art of sculptures, that is why they considered the statues of Buddha and Bodhisattvas as the best
examples of Indian art.

From Familiar to make Sense of Unfamiliar:

In order to understand this art, they chose a very simple method and that was to understand unfamiliar
things on the basis of familiar things.

Art historians generally collect information from written texts to understand the context and importance of any statue. While this is certainly a far more effective strategy than comparing Indian images with Greek status. But it was not always easy to use. One of the most interesting examples of this is the famous sculpture along a huge rock surface in Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu).

A vivid description of any story is given in the statues. But which story is it? Art historians search through Puranas to it. But still they contradictory views. are of the view that depicts the descent of the Ganga river. They are of the view that the natural cleft through the center of the rock surface might represent the river. This story is narrated in epics and Puranas. Other scholars are of the view that it represents a story of Arjuna doing penance on the banks of the river to acquire arms. Its description is given in Mahabharata. They are
pointing to the central figure of an ascetic.

Thinkers, Beliefs, and Buildings Important Extra Questions Source-Based

Read the following passages and answer the questions that follow :
Question 1.
A Prayer to Agni

Here are two verses from the Rigveda invoking Agni, the god of fire, often identified with the sacrificial fire, into which offerings were made so as to reach the other deities:
Bring, O strong one, this sacrifice of ours to the gods, O wise one, as a liberal giver. Bestow on us, O priest, abundant food. Agni, obtain, by sacrificing, mighty wealth for us. Procure, O Agni. forever to him who prays to
you (the gift of nourishment, the wonderful cow. May a son be ours, offspring that continues our line

Verses such as these were composed in a special kind of Sanskrit, known as Vedic Sanskrit. They were taught orally to men belonging to priestly families.
(i) From where have these verses been taken? Who has been invoked in them?
Answer:
These verses have been taken from the Rigveda. They have invoked the god of Agni.

(ii) What has the god of Agni been prayed for?
Answer:
The following prayers have been made to the god of Agni :
(a) To take the sacrifice to the gods.
(b) To give blessings liberally.
(c) To seek abundant food in life.
(d) To seek wealth and prosperity.
(e) To be blessed with a son and a cow.
(f) To seek proper nourishment.

(iii) What is Rigveda? What was Vedic culture?
Answer:
The Rigveda describes the early Vedic tradition. It was compiled between C. 1500 and 1000 B.C.E. It has hymns in praise of Agni, Indra, and Soma. These hymns were sung when Yajnas were performed and sacrifices were made to pray for cattle, sons, good health, and long life.

(iv) With the passage of time, what changes came in the tradition of Yajna (Sacrifice)?
Answer:
Earlier sacrifices were performed collectively. But later on, they were performed by the heads of households who prayed for the well-being of all the members of the family. The kings and the rich landlords performed elaborate sacrifices such as the Rajasua and Ashvamedha.

Question 2.
Verses from the Upanishads

Here are two verses from the Chhandogya Upanishad, a text composed in Sanskrit c. sixth Century B.C.E. :

The Nature of the Self

This self of mine within the heart is smaller than paddy or barley or mustard or millet or the kernel of a seed of millet. This self of mine within the heart is greater than the earth, greater than the intermediate space, greater than heaven, greater than these worlds.

The True Sacrifice
This one (the wind) that blows, this is surely a sacrifice.
While moving, it sanctifies all this; therefore it is indeed a sacrifice.
(i) From where have these verses been taken? When were they composed?
Answer:
These verses have been taken from a Sanskrit book entitled “Chhandogya Upanishad”. They were composed in sixth-century B.C.E.

(ii) In these verses, what has been said about the nature of the soul and true Yajna?
Answer:
According to these verses, the nature of the soul is strange. It resides in the human heart. It is smaller than paddy or barley or a mustard seed. But in reality, it is greater than the earth, bigger than space, and larger than heaven.
Similarly, these verses tell us that the blowing of wind is a true Yajna. When the wind blows, it sanctifies everyone. A Yajna also purifies. So the wind is a true Yajna.

(iii) What do we know from the ideology given in the Upanishads?
Answer:
The ideology of the Upanishads is that a man’s rebirth depends on his past actions. He always wants to know the ultimate reality. Besides, there were many people who realized the significance of the sacrificial tradition.

Question 3.
Fatalists and Materialists

Here is an excerpt from the Sutta Pitaka, describing a conversation between king Ajatasattu, the ruler of Magadha, and the Buddha :

On one occasion King Ajatasattu visited the Buddha and described what another teacher, named Makkhali Gosala, had told him:

“Though the wise should hope, by this virtue …. by this penance I will gain karma… and the fool should by the same means hope to gradually rid himself of his karma, neither of them can do it. Pleasure and pain, measured out as they were, cannot be altered in the course of samsara (transmigration). It can neither be lessened nor increased … just as a ball of string will when thrown unwind to its full length, so fool and wise alike will take their course and make an end of sorrow.”

And this is what a philosopher named Ajita Kesakambalin taught:

“There is no such thing, O king, as alms or sacrifice, or offerings… there is no such thing as this world or the next …

A human being is made up of four elements. When he dies the earthy in him returns to the earth, the fluid to water, the heat to fire, the windy to air, and his senses pass into space…

The talk of gifts is a doctrine of fools, an empty lie … fools and wise alike are cut off and perish. They do not survive after death.”

The first teacher belonged to the tradition of the Ajivikas. They have often been described as fatalists; those who believe that everything is predetermined. The second teacher belonged to the tradition of the Lokayatas, usually described as materialists. Texts from these traditions have not survived, so we know about them only from the works of other traditions.
(i) From where has this excerpt been taken? What does it describe?
Answer:
This excerpt has been taken from the ‘Sutta Pitaka’: It describes a conversation between Ajatasattu, the ruler of Magadha, and the Buddha.

(ii) What were the views of Makkhali Gosala about joy and sorrow?
Answer:
According to Makkhali Gosala, pleasure and pain are a part of life. They cannot be altered in the course of human or worldly life. They can neither be lessened nor increased.

(iii) What sermon had Ajita Kesakambalin given to Ajatashatru ?
Answer:
Ajita Kesakambalin told Ajatashatru that there is no such thing as alms or sacrifice or offerings. There is also no such thing as this world or that world. A human being is made up of four elements. When he dies, he mixes with the earth. The fluid in him goes to the water and the heat goes to the fire. The windy part of the body goes to the air. After death, his senses pass into space. No one can survive death. Whether a fool or a wise – all have to die one day.

(iv) To which tradition has associated the relationship between the Fatalists and the Materialists?
Answer:
The Fatalists belong to the Ajivika tradition whereas the materialists belong to the tradition of the Lokayatas. The Fatalists believe that everything is pre-destined but not much is known about the materialists.

Question 4.
The World Beyond the Palace

Just as the Buddha’s teachings were compiled by his followers, the teachings of Mahavira were also recorded by his disciples. These were often in the form of stories, which could appeal to ordinary people. Here is one example, from a Prakrit text known as the Uttaradhyayana Sutta, describing how a queen named Kamalavati tried to persuade her husband to renounce the world.

If the whole world and all its treasures were yours, you would not be satisfied, nor would all this be able to save you. When you die, 0 kings and leave all things behind, dhamma alone, and nothing else will save you. As a bird dislikes the cage, so do I dislike (the world). I shall live as a nun without offspring, without desire, without the love of gain, and without hatred … Those who have enjoyed pleasures and renounced them, move about like the wind and go wherever they please, unchecked like birds in their flight…

Leave your large kingdom … abandon what pleases the senses, be without attachment and property, then practice severe penance, being firm of energy…
(i) Name the book from which this excerpt has been taken. In which language has the book been written?
Answer:
This excerpt has been taken from the book ‘Uttaradhyayana Sutta’. It was written in the Prakrit language.

(ii) What are things a queen named Kamalavati said to persuade the king to renounce the world?
Answer:
To persuade her husband to renounce the world, Kamalavati said the following things:
(a) The worldly treasures cannot make a man feel satisfied. They can also not save anyone.
(b) A man leaves all things behind after his death.
(c) Only dhamma (religion) and nothing else, can save a man.
(d) A bird does not like its cage. Similarly, a man should not like this world.
(e) By renouncing pleasures, a man can become as free as the wind or a bird. He can go wherever he pleases.

(iii) Discuss the main principles of Jainism
Answer:
The main principles of Jainism are :
(a) The entire world is animated. Even stones, rocks, and water have life.
(b) No one should cause any injury to anyone. Non-injury to human beings, animals, plants
and insects is the central principle of Jainism.
(c) The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through Karma. If one has to get rid of the cycle of Karma, he must adopt asceticism and penance.
(d) All should take five vows: to abstain from killing or violence, to speak the truth, to avoid stealing, to observe celibacy, and to discard the possession of the property.

Question 5.
Buddhism in Practice

This is an excerpt from the Sutta Pitaka, and contains the advice given by the Buddha to a wealthy householder named Sigala :

In five ways should a master look after his servants and employees….by assigning them to work according to their strength, by supplying them with food and wages, by tending them in sickness; by sharing delicacies with them and by granting leave at times…

In five ways should the clansmen look after the needs of samanas (those who have renounced the world) and Brahmanas: by affection in act and speech and mind, by keeping open house to them and supplying their worldly needs.

There are similar instructions to Sigala about how to behave with his parents, teacher, and wife.
(i) From where has this excerpt been taken? In it, who is being advised by the Buddha?
Answer:
This excerpt has been taken from ‘Sutta Pitaka’. Herein the Buddha is giving advice to Sigala, a wealthy householder.

(ii) According to Buddha, how should a master look after his servants and employees in the five ways?
Answer:
According to Buddha, a master should look after his servants and employees in the following five manners :
(a) By assigning them to work according to their capacity and strength.
(b) By supplying them with food and wages.
(c) By serving them during their sickness.
(d) By sharing delicacies with them.
(e) By granting leave at times.

(iii) How should the clansmen look after the needs of Samanas and the Brahmanas?
Answer:
The clansmen should look after the needs of Samanas (those who have renounced the world i.e. tyagis) and Brahmanas in the following manner:
(a) By showing love in acts.
(b) By showing affection in speech.
(c) By showing regard in mind.
(d) By keeping the doors open for them.
(e) By fulfilling their worldly needs.

Question 6.
The Therigatha

This unique Buddhist text, part of the Sutta Pitaka, is a collection of verses composed by bhikkhunis. It provides an insight into women’s social and spiritual experiences. Punna, a dasi or slave woman, went to the river each morning to fetch water for her master’s household. There she would daily see a Brahmana performing bathing rituals. One morning she spoke to him. The following are ♦ verses composed by Punna, recording her conversation with the Brahmana :

I am a water carrier :
Even in the cold
I have always gone down to the water
frightened of punishment
Or the angry words of high-class women.
So what are you afraid of Brahmana,
That makes you go down to the water (Though) your limbs shake with the bitter cold?

The Brahmana replied :
I am doing good to prevent evil; anyone young or old who has done something bad is freed by washing in water.
Punna said :
Whoever told you
You are freed from evil by washing in the water ?…
In that case, all the frogs and turtles Would go to heaven, and so would the water snakes and crocodiles!
(Instead) Don’t do that thing, the fear of which leads you to the water.
Stop now Brahmana!
Save your skin from the cold …
(i) From where has this excerpt been taken? What has been compiled in it?
Answer:

(ii) Who was Punna? Which ritual of the Brahmana was satirized by her?
Answer:
This excerpt has been taken from ‘Sutta Pitaka’. This Buddhist text has a collection of verses composed by bhikkhunis.

(iii) What did she ask from the Brahmana? What was the reply of the Brahmana?
Answer:
Punna was a dasi or a slave. Every day she went to the river in the morning. She brought water for her master’s household. She satirized the ritual of bath performed by a Brahamana.

(iv) How did she advise the Brahmana not to do any bad deed?
Answer:
Punna told the Brahmana that a bath in water cannot make anyone good and pious. Had it been so, all the frogs, crocodiles, and turtles would have gone to heaven. She advised the Brahmana to save himself from the fear that was threatening him.

Question 7.
Rules for Monks and Nuns

These are some of the rules laid down in the Vinaya Pitaka:

When a new felt (blanket/rug) has been made by a bhikkhu, it is to be kept for (at least) six years. If after less than six years he should have another new felt (blanket/rug) made regardless of whether or not he has disposed of the first, then-unless he has been authorized by the bhikkhus-it is to be forfeited and confessed.

In case a bhikkhu arriving at a family residence is presented with cakes or cooked grain-meal, he may accept two or three bowlfuls if he so desires. If he should accept more than that, it is to be confessed. Having accepted the two or three bowlfuls and having taken them from there, he is to share them among the bhikkhus. This is the proper course here.

Should any bhikkhu, having set out bedding in I a lodging belonging to the sangha or having I had it set out-and then on departing neither. put it away nor have it put away or should he go without taking leave, it is to be confessed.

(i) Name any two Buddhist texts in which the rules, for the monks have been laid down.
Answer:
The rules for Buddhist monks and nuns were laid
down in the ‘Vinaya Pitaka! and ‘Sutta Pitaka’.

(ii) Why were these rules framed?
Answer:
Rules were made for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis and they were supposed to live a pure life because they used to teach the people. A teacher must lead the people by becoming a role model for the people.

(iii) What was the sangha? Explain.
Answer:
The followers of Buddhism started to grow rapidly. That is why Buddha founded an organization of monks who too became teachers of dhamma. This organization was known as ‘Sangha’.

(iv) State any three rules mentioned in the passage, for the bhikkhus. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (O.D.))
Answer:
(a) When a bhikkhu made a new blanket, he must keep it for at least 6 years, before the blanket was taken away from him. This blanket was forfeited even though he had disposed of his first blanket.
(b) Every bhikkhu belonging to a Sangha had to set out his bedding in a lodging. It was considered a crime not to set out the bedding before departure.
(c) In case a bhikkhu arriving at a family residence is presented with cakes or cooked grain meal, he may accept two or three bowlfuls if he so desires.

Question 8.
Why were Stupas Built?

This is an excerpt from the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, part of the Sutta Pitaka :

As the Buddha lay dying, Ananda asked him: “What are we to do Lord, with the remains of the Tathagata (another name for the Buddha ?”

The Buddha replied: “Hinder not yourselves Ananda by honoring the remains of the Tathagata. Be zealous, be intent on your own good.”

But when pressed further, the Buddha said: “At the four crossroads they should erect a stupa (Pali for stupa) to the Tathagata. And whosoever shall there place garlands or perfume …. or make a salutation there, or become in its presence calm of heart, that shall long be to them for a profit and joy.”
(i) From which chapter has this excerpt been taken? It is a part of which book?
Answer:
This excerpt has been taken from the ‘Mahaparinibbana Sutta’. It was a part of the “Sutta Pitaka.”

(ii) What are the Stupas? Who advised Ananda to build the Stupa?
Answer:
The Stupas were the sacred places. They preserved the relics of the Buddha such as his bodily remains or the objects used by him. All these things were buried in the stupas.

(iii) Who was Tathagata? What had he told about the importance of the Stupa?
Answer:
Tathagata was another name for the Buddha. He told Ananda that the honor of his worldly remains was not important. He laid stress on the importance of one’s good deeds. The stupas should be erected on the holy places. If anybody placed garlands or perfume or saluted them, he will not only get peace of mind but also profit and joy.

(iv) Name any three places where the Stupas have been built.
Answer:
The stupas were built in many places. The most important stupas existed at Bharhut, Sanchi, and Sarnath.