Category: Biology

Learninsta presents the core concepts of Biology with high-quality research papers and topical review articles.

Pulp Wood Definition and Its Manufacturing

The term paper is derived from the word ‘papyrus’ a plant (Cyperus papyrus) that was used by Egyptians to make paper-like materials. Paper production is a Chinese invention.

The Chinese discovered the paper that was prepared from the inner bark of paper mulberry in 105 A.D. For a long time, the art of paper making remained a monopoly of the Chinese until Arabs learned the technique and improved it around 750 A.D. Invention of printing increased the demand for paper.

Manufacture of Wood pulp:

Wood is converted into pulp by mechanical, and chemical processes. Wood of Melia azadirachta, Neolamarkia chinensis, Casuarina spp, Eucalyptus spp are used for making paper pulp.

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Latex Definition and Its Uses

Botanical name: Hevea brasiliensis
Family: Euphorbiaceae

Origin and Area of cultivation:

It is a native of Brazil and was introduced outside its native range during the colonial period and has become an important cash crop. Asia contributed 90% of the world production. Kerala is the largest producer in India followed by Tamil Nadu.

Uses

Tyre and other automobile parts manufacturing industries consume 70% of the rubber production. Rubber is used in manufacturing footwear, wire and cable insulations, raincoats, household and hospital goods, shock absorbers, belts, sports goods, erasers, adhesives, and rubber-bands Hard rubber is used in the electrical and radio engineering industries Concentrated latex is used for making gloves, balloons and condoms. Foamed latex is used in the manufacture of cushions, pillows and lifebelts.

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Economically Useful Plants and Entrepreneurial Botany – Fibre

Botanically a fier is a long narrow and thickwalled cell.

Cotton

Botanical name: Gossypium spp.
Family: Malvaceae

Cotton is the world’s most important non-food commercial crop.

Origin and Area of cultivation:

It is one of the oldest cultivated crops of the world. It has been cultivated for about 8000 years both in new world and in old world. Commercial cotton comes from four cotton species: two from the new world and two from the old world.

• G. hirsutum
• G.barbadense are the New world species and
• G. arboretum
• G. herbaceum are the old world species. In India cotton is cultivated in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

Uses

It is mainly used in the manufacturing of various textile, hosiery products, toys and is also used in hospitals.

Jute

Botanical name: Corchorus spp.
Family: Malvaceae

Origin and Area of cultivation:

Jute is derived from the two cultivated species

• Corchorus capsularis and
• Colitorius is of African origin whereas C. capsularis, is believed to be Indo-Burmese origin. It is an important cultivated commercial crop in Gangetic plains of India and Bangladesh.

Uses

It is one of the largest exported fire material of India. The jute industry occupies an important place in the national economy of India. Jute is used for ‘safe’ packaging in view of being natural, renewable, bio-degradable and eco-friendly product.

It is used in bagging and wrapping textile. About 75% of the jute produced is used for manufacturing sacks and bags. It is also used in manufacture of blankets, rags, curtains etc. It is also being used as a textile fire in recent years.

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Spices and Condiments | Condiment

“Aroma attracts everyone”

History:

Spices were used extensively throughout the world for several thousands of years. Records of use of garlic and onion dates back 2500 years. Majority of the spices are native to Mediterranean region, India and South East Asian countries. Spices, especially pepper triggered the search for sea route to India and paved way for the exploratory voyages by Spanish and Portuguese.

Spices are accessory foods mainly used for flavouring during food preparation to improve their palatability. Spices are aromatic plant products and are characterized by sweet or bitter taste. Spices are added in minimal quantities during the cooking process. For example black pepper.

Condiments, on the other hand, are flavouring substances having a sharp taste and are usually added to food after cooking. For example, curry leaves. The following spices and condiment are discussed in detail.

Spices

Cardamom

Botanical name: Elettaria cardamomum
Family: Zingiberaceae

Origin and Area of cultivation:

It is indigenous to Southern India and Sri Lanka. Cardamom is called as “Queen of Spices”. In India it is one of the main cash crops cultivated in the Western Ghats, and North Eastern India.

Uses

The seeds have a pleasing aroma and a characteristic warm, slightly pungent taste. It is used for flavouring confectionaries, bakery products and beverages. The seeds are used in the preparation of curry powder, pickles and cakes. Medicinally, it is employed as a stimulant and carminative. It is also chewed as a mouth freshener.

Black Pepper

Botanical name: Piper nigrum
Family: Piperaceae

Origin and Area of cultivation:

It is indigenous to Western Ghats of India. Pepper is one of the most important Indian spices referred to as the “King of Spices” and also termed as “Black Gold of India”. Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are the top producers in India. The characteristic pungency of the pepper is due to the presence of alkaloid Piperine. There are two types of pepper available in the market namely black and white pepper.

Uses

It is used for flvouring in the preparation of sauces, soups, curry powder and pickles. It is used in medicine as an aromatic stimulant for enhancing salivary and gastric secretions and also as a stomachic. Pepper also enhances the bio-absorption of medicines.

Turmeric

Botanical name: Curcuma longa
Family: Zingiberaceae

Origin and Area of cultivation:

It is indigenous to Southern Asia India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of turmeric. Erode in Tamil Nadu is the World’s largest wholesale turmeric market.

Uses

Turmeric is one of the most important and ancient Indian spices and used traditionally over thousands of years for culinary, cosmetic, dyeing and for medicinal purposes. It is an important constituent of curry powders. Turmeric is used as a colouring agent in pharmacy, confectionery and food industry. Rice coloured with turmeric (yellow) is considered sacred and auspicious which is used in ceremonies.

It is also used for dyeing leather, fire, paper and toys. Curcumin extracted from turmeric is responsible for the yellow colour. Curcumin is a very good anti-oxidant which may help fight various kinds of cancer. It has anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal and antiviral activities. It stops platelets from clotting in arteries, which leads to heart attack.

Chillies / Red Pepper

Botanical name: Capsicum annuum, C. frutescens.
Family: Solanaceae

Origin and Area of cultivation:

Capsicum is native to South America and is popularly known as chillies or red pepper in English. India is leading producer and exporter. C. annuum and C. frutescens are important cultivated species of chillies.

Uses

The fruits ofC.annuum are less pungent than the fruits of C.frutescens. C.annum includes large, sweet bell peppers. Long fruit cultivars of this species are commercially known as ‘Cayenne pepper’ which are crushed, powdered and used as condiment.

Chillies are used in manufacture of sauces, curry powders and preparation of pickles. Capsaicin is an active component of chillies. It has pain relieving properties and used in pain relieving balms. Chillies are a good source of Vitamin C, A and E.

Condiment

Tamarind

Botanical name: Tamarindus indica
Family: FabaceaeCaesalpinioideae

Origin and Area of cultivation:

Tamarind is native of tropical African region and was introduced into India several thousand years before. It is cultivated in India, Myanmar, south asian countries and several African and Central American countries. Tamarind has long been used in Africa and in Southern Asia. The name tamarindus is of Arabian origin, which means “dates of India”. (tamar – dates; Indus – India).

Uses

It is used in flavouring sauces in the United States and Mexico. In India, the fruit pulp is major ingredients for many culinary preparations. Sweet tamarinds are sold as table fruits in India imported from Thiland and Malaysia.

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Food Plants | Cerals | Major cereals | Miles (Siru Thaniyangal) | Minor Millets | Pulses | Vegetables | Fruits | Nuts | Sugars | Bevarages

Currently about 10,000 food plants are being used of which only around 1, 500 species were brought under cultivation. However, food base of majority of the population depends only on three grass species namely rice, wheat and maize.

Cereals

The word cereal is derived from Ceres, which according to the Roman mythology denotes “Goddess of agriculture”. All cereals are members of grass family (Poaceae) that are grown for their edible starchy seeds. The prominence of cereals as food plants is due to the following attributes:

• Greater adaptability and successful colonisation on every type of habitat.
• The relative ease of cultivation
• Tillering property that produce more branches which results in higher yield per unit area.
• Compact and dry grains that they can be easily handled, transported and stored without undergoing spoilage.
• High caloric value that provides energy.

The nutrients provided by cereals include carbohydrates, proteins, fibres and a wide range of vitamins and minerals. Cereals can be classified into two different types based on their size namely Major Cereals and Minor Cereals.

Major Cereals

Rice / Paddy

Botanical name: Oryza sativa

Paddy is a semi-aquatic crop and is grown in standing water. It is an important food crop of the world, occupying the second position in terms of area under cultivation and production, next to wheat. Rice is the chief source of carbohydrate.

Origin and Area of cultivation

South East Asia is considered as the center of origin of rice. Earliest evidences of rice cultivation have been found in China, India and Thailand. It is mainly cultivated in Delta and irrigated regions of Tamil Nadu.

Uses

Rice is the easily digestible calorie rich cereal food which is used as a staple food in Southern and North East India. Various rice products such as Flaked rice (Aval), Puffed rice / parched rice (Pori) are used as breakfast cereal or as snack food in different parts of India.

Rice bran oil obtained from the rice bran is used in culinary and industrial purposes. Husks are used as fuel, and in the manufacture of packing material and fertilizer.

Wheat
Botanical name: Triticum aestivum

Origin and Area of cultivation

Earliest evidence for wheat cultivation comes from Fertile Crescent region. The common cultivated wheat, Triticum aestivum is cultivated for about 7, 500 years. Wheat is mostly cultivated in the North Indian states such as Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar.

Uses

Wheat is the staple food in Northern India. Wheat flour is suitable to make bread and other bakery products. Processed wheat flour, that has little fire, is called Maida which is used extensively in making parota, naan and bakery products. Malted wheat is a major raw material for producing alcoholic beverages and nutritive drinks.

Uses

Most of the corn produced is used as fodder than food. Corn syrup is used in the manufacture of infant foods. Corn is a raw material in the industrial production of alcohol and alcoholic beverages.

Millets (Siru Thniyangal)

The term millet is applied to a variety of very small seeds originally cultivated by ancient people in Africa and Asia. They are gluten free and have less glycemic index.

Finger Millet – Ragi

Botanical name: Eleusine coracana
Finger millet is the crop of early introduction from East Africa into India. Ragi is rich in calcium.

Uses

It is used as a staple food in many southern hilly regions of India. Ragi grains are made into porridge and gruel. Ragi malt is the popular nutrient drink. It is used as a source of fermented beverages.

Sorghum

Botanical name: Sorghum vulgare.
Sorghum is native to Africa. It is one of the major millets in the world and is rich in calcium and iron.

Uses

It is fed to poultry, birds, pigs and cattle and a source of fermented alcoholic beverage.

Minor Millets

Foxtail Millet

Botanical name: Setaria italica
This is one of the oldest millet used traditionally in India. Which is domesticated first in China about 6000 years. Rich in protein, carbohydrate, vitamin B and C, Potassium and Calcium.

Uses

It supports in strengthening of heart and improves eye sight. Thinai porridge is given to lactating mother.

Kodo Millet

Botanical name: Paspalum scrobiculatum

Kodo millet is originated from West Africa, which is rich in fire, protein and minerals.

Uses

Kodo millet is ground into flour and used to make pudding. Good diuretic and cures constipation. Helps to reduce obesity, blood sugar and blood pressure.

Pulses

The word Pulse is derived from the Latin words ‘puls’ or ‘pultis’ meaning “thick soup”. Pulses are the edible seeds that are harvested from the fruits of Fabaceae. They provide vital source of plant-based protein, vitamins and minerals for people around the globe.

Black gram
Botanical name: Vigna mungo

Origin and Area of cultivation

Black gram is native to India. Earliest archeobotanical evidences record the presence of black gram about 3, 500 years ago. It is cultivated as a rain fed crop in drier parts of India. India contributes to 80% of the global production of black gram. Important states growing black gram in India are Uttar Pradesh, Chattisgarh and Karnataka.

Uses

Black gram is eaten whole or split, boiled or roasted or ground into flour. Black gram batter is a major ingredients for the preparation of popular Southern Indian breakfast dishes. Split pulse is used in seasoning Indian curries.

Red gram / Pigeon pea
Botanical name: Cajanus cajan

Origin and Area of cultivation:
It is the only pulse native to Southern India. It is mainly grown in the states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Gujarat.

Uses

Red gram is a major ingredient of sambar, a characteristic dish of Southern India. Roasted seeds are consumed either salted or unsalted as a popular snack. Young pods are cooked and consumed.

Green gram
Botanical name: Vigna radiata

Origin and Area of cultivation
Green gram is a native of India and the earliest archaeological evidences are found in the state of Maharashtra. It is cultivated in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Uses

It can be used as roasted cooked and sprouted pulse. Green gram is one of the ingredients of pongal, a popular breakfast dish in Tamil Nadu. Fried dehulled and broken or whole green gram is used as popular snack. The flur is traditionally used as a cosmetic, especially for the skin.

Vegetables

While walking through a market filled with fresh vegetables like stacks of lady’s finger, mountains of potatoes, pyramids of brinjal, tomatoes, cucurbits, we learn to choose the vegetables that is fresh, tender, ripe and those suit the family taste through experience and cultural practices. Why do we need to eat vegetables and what do they provide us?

Vegetables are the important part of healthy eating and provide many nutrients, including potassium, dietary fiber, folic acid and vitamins A, E and C. The nutrients in vegetables are vital for maintenance of our health.

Lady’s finger / Okra

Botanical name: Abelmoschus esculentus
Family: Malvaceae

Origin and Area of cultivation

Lady’s figer is a native of the Tropical Africa. Assam, Maharashtra and Gujarat are the important states where Lady’s finger is grown in abundance. Coimbatore, Dharmapuri and Vellore are the major cultivating regions of Tamil Nadu.

Uses

The fresh and green tender fruits are used as a vegetable. Often they are sliced and dehydrated to conserve them for later use. It has most important nutrients.

Fruits

Edible fruits are flashy structures with a pleasant aroma and flavours. Fruits are sources of many nutrients including potassium, dietary fiber, folic acid and vitamins.Depending on the climatic region in which fruit crops grow, they can be classified into temperate (apple, pear, plum) and tropical fruits (mango, jack, banana). In this chapter we will study an example of tropical fruit.

Mango (National fruit of India)

Botanical name: Mangifera indica
Family: Anacardiaceae

Origin and Area of cultivation

The mango is the native to Southern Asia, especially Burma and Eastern India. It is the National fruit of India. Major mango producing States are Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat and Karnataka. Salem, Krishnagiri, Dharmapuri are the major mango producing districts of Tamil Nadu. Some of the major cultivars of mango in India are Alphonsa, Banganapalli, neelam and malgova.

Uses

Mango is the major table fruit of India, which is rich in beta carotenes. It is utilized in many ways, as dessert, canned, dried and preserves in Indian cuisine. Sour, unripe mangoes are used in chutneys, pickles, side dishes, or may be eaten raw with salt and chilli. Mango pulp is made into jelly. Aerated and non-aerated fruit juice is a popular soft drink.

Nuts

Nuts are simple dry fruits composed of a hard shell and an edible kernel. They are packed with a good source of healthy fats, fire, protein, vitamins, minerals and antioxidants.

Cashew nut

Botanical name: Anacardium occidentale
Family: Anacardiaceae

Origin and Area of cultivation

Cashew has originated in Brazil and made its way to India in the 16th century through Portuguese sailors. Cashew is grown in Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Orissa.

Uses

Cashews are commonly used for garnishing sweets or curries, or ground into a paste that forms a base of sauces for curries or some sweets. Roasted and raw kernels are used as snacks.

Sugars

We experienced sweetness while eating the stems of sugarcane, roots of sugar beet, fruits of apple and while drinking palmyra sap. This is due to the different proportions of sugars found in it. Sugar is the generic name for sweet tasting soluble carbohydrate, which are used in foods and beverages. Sugars found in sugarcane and palmyra make them ideal for efficient extraction to make commercial sugar.

Sugarcane

Botanical name: Saccharum offinarum
Family: Poaceae

Origin and Area of cultivation

The cultivated Saccharum officinarium has evolved by repeated back crossing of S.offinarum of New Guinea with wild S.spontaneum of India to improve the quality. All districts except Kanyakumari and Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu cultivate Sugarcane.

Uses

Sugar cane is the raw material for extracting white sugar. Sugarcane supports large number of industries like sugar mills producing refield sugars, distilleries producing liquor grade

ethanol and millions of jaggery manufacturing units. Fresh sugarcane juice is a refreshing drink. Molasses is the raw material for the production of ethyl alcohol.

Palmyra (State tree of Tamil Nadu)
Botanical name: Borassus flabellifer
Family: Arecaceae

Origin and Area of cultivation

Palmyra is native to tropical regions of Africa, Asia and New Guinea. Palmyra grows all over Tamil Nadu, especially in coastal districts.

Uses

Exudate from influrescence axis is collected for preparing palm sugar. Influrescence is tapped for its sap which is used as health drink. Sap is processed to get palm jaggery or fermented to give toddy.

Endosperm is used as a refreshing summer food. Germinated seeds have an elongated embryo surrounded by fleshy scale leaf which is edible.

Oil Seeds

Why fried foods are tastier than boiled foods? There are two kinds of oils namely, essential oils and vegetable oils or fatty oils. The essential oils or volatile oils which possess aroma evaporate or volatilize in contact with air. Any organ of a plant may be the source of essential oil.

For example, flowers of Jasmine, fruits of orange and roots of ginger. The vegetable oils or non-volatile oils or fixed oils that do not evaporate. Whole seeds or endosperm form the sources of vegetable oils. Let us know about few oil seeds

Groundnut / Peanut

Botanical name: Arachis hypogaea
Family: Fabaceae

Origin and Area of Cultivation:

Groundnut is native of Brazil. Portuguese introduced groundnut into Africa. The Spanish took it to the South East Asia and India via Philippines. In India Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan are top producers.

Uses

Nuts contain about 45% oil. The kernels are also rich sources of phosphorous and vitamins, particularly thiamine, riboflavin and niacin. It is premium cooking oil because it does not smoke. Lower grade oil is used in manufacture of soaps and lubricants.

Sesame / Gingelly

Botanical name: Sesamum indicum
Family: Pedaliaceae

Origin and Area of cultivation:

Sesamum indicum has originated from Africa. Sesame is cultivated as a dry land crop. West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh are the top producers in India during 2017-18. It is considered as a healthy oil in Southern Indian culture.

Uses

Sesame oil is used for mostly culinary purposes in India. Lower grades are used in manufacture of soaps, in paint industries, as a lubricant and as an illuminant. In India, the oil is the basis of most of the scented oils used in perfumes. Sesame seed snacks are popular throughout India.

Beverages

How about a cup of coffe or tea? We always entertain our guests with this offer.

All non-alcoholic beverages contain alkaloids that stimulate central nervous system and also possess mild diuretic properties.

Coffee

Botanical name: Coffea arabica
Family: Rubiaceae

Why does a student or a driver prefer tea or coffee during night work?

Origin and Area of cultivation:

Coffea arabica is the prime source of commercial coffee which is native to the tropical Ethiopia An Indian Muslim saint, Baba Budan introduced coffee from Yemen to Mysore.Karnataka is the largest coffee producing state in India followed by Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Tamil Nadu is the largest consumer of coffee in India.

Uses

Drinking coffee in moderation provides the following health benefits:

Caffiene enhances release of acetylcholine in brain, which in turn enhances efficiency. It can lower the incidence of fatty liver diseases, cirrhosis and cancer. It may reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes.

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Modern Plant Breeding Techniques

In the milestones of plant breeding methods Genetic Engineering, Plant tissue culture, Protoplasmic fusion or somatic hybridisation, Molecular marking and DNA figer printing are some of the modern plant breeding tools used to improve the crop varieties.

We have already discussed about the various techniques and application of the above mentioned concepts in Unit VIII.

New Plant Engineering Techniques / New Breeding Techniques (NBT)

NBT are a collection of methods that could increase and accelerate the development of new traits in plant breeding. These techniques often involve genome editing, to modify DNA at specific locations within the plants to produce new traits in crop plants. The various methods of achieving these changes in traits include the following.

• Cutting and modifying the genome during the repair process by tools like CRISPR/Cas.
• Genome editing to introduce changes in few base pairs using a technique called Oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis (ODM).
• Transferring a gene from an identical or closely related species (cisgenesis).
• Organising processes that alter gene activity without altering the DNA itself (epigenetic methods).

Plant breeding is an activity that has been carried out since humans first started undertaking settled farming, but its scientific basis was only firmly established with the rediscovery of Mendel’s work on genetics at the end of the nineteenth century.

The impetus and sophistication of plant breeding have advanced at a tremendous pace over the last 30 years with the implementation of the new biotechnological possibilities. However, plant breeding itself is still necessarily based on sound genetics, experimental design, and traditional evaluation of phenotypes.

The strategies therefore underlying the practice of plant breeding are therefore not only relevant but necessary in order to carry out a successful plant breeding program. The basis for such plant breeding practices is set out in this article.

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Various Types Of Organic Agriculture | Biofertilizers

Organic farming is an alternative agricultural system which originated early in the twentieth century in reaction to rapidly changing farming practices. It is a production system that sustains the health of the soils, ecosystems and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects.

Biofertilizers

Biofertilizers are defined as preparations containing living cells or latent cells of efficient strains of microorganisms that help crop plants uptake of nutrients by their interactions in the rhizosphere when applied through seed or soil. Biofertilizers could be also called as microbial cultures, bioinoculants, bacterial inoculants or bacterial fertilizers.

They are efficient in fixing nitrogen, solubilising phosphate and decomposing cellulose. They are designed to improve the soil fertility, plant growth, and also the number and biological activity of beneficial microorganisms in the soil. They are ecofriendly organic agro inputs and are more efficient and cost effective than chemical fertilizers.

Rhizobium

Bio-fertilisers containing rhizobium bacteria are called rhizobium bio-fertilizer culture. Symbiotic bacteria that reside inside the root nodules convert the atmospheric nitrogen into a bio available form to the plants. This nitrogen fixing bacterium when applied to the soil undergoes multiplication and fies the atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. Rhizobium is best suited for the paddy fields which increase the yield by 15 – 40%.

Azolla

Azolla is a free-flating water fern that fies the atmospheric nitrogen in association with nitrogen fiing blue green alga Anabaena azolla. It is used as a bio-fertilizer for wetland rice cultivation and is known to contribute 40 – 60 kg/ha/crop. The agronomic potential of Azolla is quite signifiant particularly for increasing the yield of rice crop, as it quickly decompose in soil.

Arbuscular mycorrhizae

Arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) is formed by the symbiotic association between certain phycomycetous fungi and angiosperm roots. They have the ability to dissolve the phosphates found in abundance in the soil.

Apart from increasing the availability of phosphorus, AM provides necessary strength to resist disease, germs and unfavourable weather conditions. It also assures water availability.

Seaweed Liquid Fertilizer

Seaweed liquid fertilizer (SLF) contains cytokinin, gibberellins and auxin apart from macro and micro nutrients. Most seaweed based fertilizers are made from kelp (brown algae) which grows to length of 150 metres. seaweed Liquid fertilizer is not only organic but also ecofriendly. The alginates in the seaweed that react with metals in the soil and form long, cross-linked polymers in the soil.

These polymers improve the crumbing in the soil, swell up when they get wet and retain moisture for a long time. They are especially useful in organic gardening which provides carbohydrates for plants. Seaweed has more than 70 minerals, vitamins and enzymes. It promotes vigorous growth. Improves resistance of plants to frost and disease. Seeds soaked in seaweed extract germinate much rapidly and develop a better root system.

Bio-Pesticides

Bio-pesticides are biological agents used for the control of plant pests. They are in high use due to their non-toxic, cheaper and eco-friendly characteristics as compared to chemical or synthetic pesticides. Bio-pesticides have become an integral component of pest management in terms of the environmental and health issues attributed to the use of chemicals in agriculture.

Trichoderma species are free-living fungi that are common in soil and root ecosystem. They have been recognized as bio-control agent for (1) the control of plant disease (2) ability to enhance root growth development (3) crop productivity (4) resistance to abiotic stress and (5) uptake and use of nutrients.

Beauveria species is an entomo-pathogenic fungus that grows naturally in soils throughout the world. It acts as a parasite on various arthropod species causing white muscardine disease without affcting the plant health and growth. It also controls damping of of tomato caused by Rhizoctonia solani.

Green Manuring

Green manuring is defined as the growing of green manure crops and use of these crops directly in the field by ploughing. One of the main objectives of the green manuring is to increase the content of nitrogen in the soil. Also it helps in improving the structure and physical properties of the soil. The most important green manure crops are Crotalaria juncea, Tephrosia purpurea, Indigofera tinctoria.

The green manuring can be practised as Green in-situ manuring or Green leaf manuring. Green in-situ manuring refers to the growing of green manuring crops in the border rows or as intercrops along with the main crops. Example: Sun hemp, Cowpea, Green gram etc.

whereas green leaf manuring is the application of green leaves and twigs of trees, shrubs, plants growing in wastelands and field bunds. The important plant species useful for green leaf manure are Cassia fistula, Sesbania grandiflora, Azadirachta indica, Delonix regia, Pongamia pinnata etc.

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Conventional Plant Breeding Methods

Conventional plant breeding methods resulting in hybrid varieties had a tremendous impact on agricultural productivity over the last decades. It develops new plant varieties by the process of selection and seeks to achieve expression of genetic material which is already present within the species. In this chapter we will discuss about some of the conventional methods of plant breeding.

Plant Introduction

Plant introduction may be defined as the introduction of genotypes from a place where it is normally grown to a new place or environment. Rice variety of IR8 introduced from Philippines and Wheat varieties of Sonora 63, Sonora 64 from Mexico.

The newly introduced plant has to adapt itself to the new environment. This adjustment or adaptation of the introduced plant in the changed environment is called acclimatization.

All the introductions must be free from presence of weeds, insects and disease causing organisms. This has to be carefully examined by the process called quarantine, a strict isolation imposed to prevent the spread of disease. Introduction may be classifid as Primary introduction and Secondary introduction.

1. Primary introduction:

When the introduced variety is well adapted to the new environment without any alternation to the original genotype.

2. Secondary introduction:

When the introduced variety is subjected to selection to isolate a superior variety and hybridized with a local variety to transfer one or a few characters to them. The botanical gardens in different parts of the world also played a significant role in plant introduction. Example: Tea varieties collected from China and North East India initially grown in Botanical Garden of Kolkata from which appropriate clones have selected and introduced to different parts of India.

Selection

Selection is the choice of certain individuals from a mixed population for a one or more desirable traits. Selection is the oldest and basic method of plant breeding. There are two main types of Selection.

(i) Natural Selection:

This is a rule in nature and results in evolution reflected in the Darwinian principle “survival of the fitest”. It takes longer time in bringing about desired variation.

(ii) Artifiial Selection:

It is a human involved process in having better crop from a mixed population where the individuals differ in character. The following are the three main types of artificial selection.

(a) Mass Selection:

In mass selection a large number of plants of similar phenotype or morphological characters are selected and their seeds are mixed together to constitute a new variety. The population obtained from the selected plants would be more uniform than the original population and are not individually tested.

After repeated selection for about five to six years, selected seeds are multiplied and distributed to the farmers. The only disadvantage of mass selection is that it is difficult to distinguish the hereditary variation from environmental variation.

(b) Pureline selection:

Johannsen in 1903 coined the word pureline. It is a collection of plants obtained as a result of repeated self-pollination from a single homozygous individual. Hence, a variety formed by this method shows more homozygosity with respect to all genes. The disadvantage of this type is that the new genotypes are never created and they are less adaptable and less stable to the environmental fluctuations.

(c) Clonal Selection:

In asexually propagated crop, progenies derived from a plant resemble in genetic constitution with the parent plant as they are mitotically divided. Based on their phenotypic appearance, clonal selection is employed to select improved variety from a mixed population (clones). The selected plants are multiplied through vegetative propagation to give rise to a clone. The genotype of a clone remains unchanged for a long period of time.

Hybridization

Hybridization is the method of producing new crop varieties in which two or more plants of unlike genetically constitution is all crossed together that result in a progeny called hybrid. Hybridization offers improvement in crop and is the only effective means of combining together the desirable characters of two or more varieties or species. The first natural hybridization was observed by Cotton Mather in maize.

Steps in Hybridization

Steps involved in hybridization are as follows.

1. Selection of Parents:
Male and female plants of the desired characters are selected. Both should be tested for their homozygosity.

2. Emasculation:
It is a process of removal of anthers to prevent self pollination before dehiscence of anther.

3. Bagging:
The stigma of the flower is protected against any undesirable pollen grains, by covering it with a bag.

4. Crossing:
Transfer of pollen grains from selected male flwer to the stigma of the female emasculated flower.

5. Harvesting seeds and raising plants:
The pollination leads to fertilization and finally seed formation takes place. The seeds are grown into new generation which are called hybrids.

Types of Hybridization

According to the relationship between plants, the hybridization is divided into.

(i) Intravarietal hybridization:
The cross between the plants of same variety. Such crosses are useful only in self-pollinated crops.

(ii) Intervarietal hybridization:
The cross between the plants belonging to two different varieties of the same species and is also known as intraspecific hybridization. This technique has been the basis of improving self-pollinated as well as cross pollinated crops.

(iii) Interspecific hybridization:
The cross between the plants belonging to different species belonging to the same genus is also called intragenic hybridization. It is commonly used for transferring the genes of disease, insect, pest and drought resistance from one species to another. Example: Gossypium hirsutum x Gossypium arboreum – Deviraj.

(iv) Intergeneric hybridization:
The crosses are made between the plants belonging to two different genera. The disadvantages are hybrid sterility, time consuming and expensive procedure. Example: Raphanobrassica, Triticale. (Refer chapter 4 for detailed illustration).

Heterosis

Heterosis (hetero – different; sis – condition) G.H. Shull was the first scientist to use the term heterosis in 1912. The superiority of the F1 hybrid in performance over its parents is called heterosis or hybrid vigour. Vigour refers to increase in growth, yield, greater adaptability of resistance to diseases, pest and drought. Vegetative propagation is the best suited measure for maintaining hybrid vigour, since the desired characters are not lost and can persist over a period of time.

Many breeders believe that the magnitude of heterosis is directly related to the degree of genetic diversity between the two parents. Depending on the nature, origin, adaptability and reproducing ability heterosis can be classified as:

(i) Euheterosis:

This is the true heterosis which is inherited and is further classified as:

(a) Mutational Euheterosis:

Simplest type of euheterosis and results from the sheltering or eliminating of the deleterious, unfavourable often lethal, recessive, mutant genes by their adaptively superior dominant alleles in cross pollinated crops.

(b) Balanced Euheterosis:

Well balanced gene combination which is more adaptive to environmental conditions and agricultural usefulness.

(ii) Pseudoheterosis:

Also termed as luxuriance. Progeny possess superiority over parents in vegetative growth but not in yield and adaptation, usually sterile or poorly fertile.

Mutation Breeding

Muller and Stadler (1927 – 1928) coined the term mutation breeding. It represents a new method of conventional breeding procedures as they have the advantage of improving the defect without losing agronomic and quality character in agriculture and crop improvement.

Mutation means the sudden heritable changes in the genotype or phenotype of an organism. Gene mutations are of considerable importance in plant breeding as they provide essential inputs for evolution as well as for re-combination and selection.

It is the only method for improving seedless crops. Radiation such as UV short wave, X-ray, Alpha (α), Beta (β), Gamma waves and many chemicals such as cesium, EMS (ethyl methane sulfonate), nitromethylurea induce mutation to develop new varieties of crops. Example: Triple gene dwarf wheat with increase in yield and height. Atomita 2 – rice with salinity tolerance and pest resistance.

Polyploid Breeding

Majority of flowering plants are diploid (2n). The plants which possess more than two sets of chromosome are called polyploids. Polyploidy is a major force in the evolution of both wild and cultivated plants. Polyploidy often exhibits increased hybrid vigour, increased heterozygosity, increase tolerance to both biotic and abiotic stresses, buffering of deleterious mutations. In addition, polyploidy often results in reduced fertility due to meiotic error allowing the production of seedless varieties.

When chromosome number is doubled by itself in the same plant, is called autopolyploidy. Example: A triploid condition in sugarbeets, apples and pear has resulted in the increase in vigour and fruit size, large root size, large leaves, flower, more seeds and sugar content in them. It also resulted in seedless tomato, apple, watermelon and orange. Polyploidy can be induced by the use of colchicine to double the chromosome number.

Allopolyploids are produced by multiplication of chromosome sets that are initially derived from two different species. Example: Triticale (Triticum durum x secale cereale) Raphanobrassica (Brassica oleraceae x Raphanus sativus).

Green Revolution

Green revolution the term was coined by William S.Gaud in (1968). It is defined as the cumulative result of a series of research, development, innovation and technology transfer initiatives. Agricultural production (especially wheat and rice) manifolds worldwide particularly in the developing countries between the 1940’s and the late 1960’s.

The Green revolution or third Agricultural Revolution is the intensive plan of 1960’s to increase crop yield in developing countries by introducing the high yielding, resistant varieties, increased irrigation facilities, fertilizer application and better agricultural management.

In 1963 semi-dwarf wheat of Mexico was introduced from which India got fie prolonged strategies for breeding a wide range of high varieties like Sonora 64, Sonalika and Kalyansona possessing a broad spectrum of resistance to major biotic and abiotic condition.

Same as wheat M.S.Swaminathan produced the first semi-dwarf fertiliser responsive hybrid variety of rice TNI (Taichung Native-1) in 1956 from Taiwan. The derivatives were introduced in 1966. Later better yielding semi dwarf varieties of rice Jaya and Ratna developed in India.

Plant Breeding for Developing Resistance to diseases

Some crop varieties bred by hybridization and selection, for disease resistance to fungi, bacteria and viral diseases are released (Table 9.1)

Resistance to yellow mosaic virus in bhindi (Abelmoschus escullentus) was transferred from a wild species and resulted in a new variety of A. Escullentus called Parbharni kranti.

Plant Breeding for Developing

Resistance to Insect Pests Insect resistance in host crop plants may be due to morphological, biochemical or physiological characteristics. Hairy leaves in several plants are associated with resistance to insect pests.

Example:

Resistance to jassids in cotton and cereal leaf beetle in wheat. In wheat, solid stems lead to non-preference by the stem sawfly and smooth leaves and nectar-less cotton varieties do not attract bollworms. High aspartic acid, low nitrogen and sugar content in maize leads to resistance to maize stem borers.

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Plant Breeding and Its Various Steps and Objectives

Plant breeding is the science of improvement of crop varieties with higher yield, better quality, resistance to diseases and shorter durations which are suitable to particular environment. In other words, it is a purposeful manipulation of plant species in order to create desired genotype and phenotype for the benefit of humans.

In early days, plant breeding activities were based mainly on skills and ability of person involved. But as the principles of genetics and cytogenetics have elucidated breeding methods such as selection, introduction, hybridization, ploidy, mutation, tissue culture and biotechnology techniques were designed to develop improved crop varieties.

Objectives of Plant Breeding:

• To increase yield, vigour and fertility of the crop
• To increase tolerance to environmental condition, salinity, temperature and drought.
• To prevent the premature falling of buds, fruits etc.
• To improve synchronous maturity.
• To develop resistance to pathogens and pests.
• To develop photosensitive and thermos-sensitive varieties.

Steps in Plant Breeding:

The main steps in plant breeding are given below

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History Of Agriculture

There are unique opportunities that plant breeding and agriculture offer the historian of biology, and unique ways in which the historian of biology can inform the history of plant breeding and agriculture (Harwood, 2006. Phillips and Kingsland, 2015).

There are also of course questions and challenges that the study of agricultural sites share with the study of other biological sites, such as those in medicine (Wilmot 2007. Woods et al. 2018), the environment (Agar and Ward 2018), and non-agricultural industries (Bud 1993).

Indeed, in some instances the agricultural, medical, environmental, and biologically industrial will be one and the same. This is to say nothing of what agricultural sites share in common with histories of science beyond biology, but that is a broader discussion I can only mention in passing (Parolini 2015).

This chapter will first address what agriculture has in common with themes that cut across this handbook, before turning in Part 2 to issues, problems, and questions that stem from agriculture’s particular features, ending in Part 3 with paths for future work.

The chapter therefore treats the intersection of biology and agriculture as demanding its own integrated attention, the two parts making up a larger historiographical whole. There are a number of reasons to give agricultural sciences and technologies this kind of autonomy from the historiography of biology at large.
First, it reminds us to question the nature, direction, and extent of influence that biological science and agriculture have had on one another.

Second, it promotes a more symmetric understanding of the knowledges that have mattered for biological science and agriculture. This is particularly important because so much of the history of biological science in agriculture has been about establishing the authority of scientific expertise over agriculture, often in competition with other kinds of expertise distributed throughout farming.

If we did not approach agricultural contexts symmetrically we might end up recapitulating the very arguments we are meant to be analysing. Third, it establishes a healthier and more distant vantage point for the historian, keeping the existing historiography of biology at arms length, allowing us to better observe its deficiencies and assumptions.

Aside from giving autonomy to the agricultural in histories of biology, there is another broad historiographical point to make. Historians of biology and agriculture have to strike a balance between which historiographical lineage they dedicate their work to, or indeed, whether they see themselves contributing to both histories of biology and agriculture simultaneously.

In some respects this issue is itself unique to agriculture, for if we look at the other topics in this handbook only one or two other chapters are asked to compete with completely different sets of scholarly lineages in their telling, these including Tracy Teslo on Race and Ethnicity, Marsha Richmond on Women, and Ana Barahona on the transnational.

Yes, other kinds of historian and scholar may make important interventions on the history of eugenics, Darwinism, and biotechnology, but when it comes to these topics nobody is in a position to outbid the historian of biology.

Agriculture is different, both in content, thanks to the variety of experts that it enrols across a very wide range of potential specialist areas, and also in terms of the historiographical landscape in which it sits, because agriculture has indeed belonged to whole other kinds of historian, be they social historians, economic historians, or historians of agriculture and the environment.

Ultimately all my talk of ownership and bidding is petty, and of course even in those topics that seem primarily the concern of the historian of biology other historical traditions and branches of scholarship are constantly being drawn in.

What I mean to convey is that: historians of biology have been late to agriculture; their insights have not always been understood as relevant or complementary to the history of agriculture; historians of agriculture seem to be getting on all too well without the historian of biology; and that if the recent growth in interest amongst historians of science into the agricultural is to be maintained and consolidated then interdisciplinary awareness is essential.

Here historians of biology offer a suite of valuable opportunities for historians of agriculture, be it through all the techno-imagining that goes into broader agricultural debate, or the chance to rethink social and economic relations on the farm, the meanings embodied in agricultural spaces, organisms, and communal practices, or as Jonathan Harwood has so brilliantly shown, through the issue of global food security (Harwood 2012).

But agriculture also demands a sensitivity and humility from the historian of biology, to know when multiple epistemologies are in play, multiple historiographies, and therefore how to translate any new historical understanding into a form that matters for defined audiences. These audiences should include not only historians of science but also those working on and in agricultural industries.

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Origin Of Agriculture and Its Types

Archeological evidence for earliest record of agriculture is found in the fertile crescent region in and around Tigris and Euphrates river valleys, approximately about 12,000 years ago. The earlier Greek and Roman naturalists like Thophrastus, Dioscorides, Pliny the elder and Galen laid down the scientifi foundation in understanding origin and domestication of cultivated plants.

Farming started in the predynastic period at the end of the Paleolithic, after 10,000 BC. Staple food crops were grains such as wheat and barley, alongside industrial crops such as flax and papyrus. In India, wheat, barley and jujube were domesticated by 9,000 BC, soon followed by sheep and goats.

Scientists believe that agriculture was established first in the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East about ten or eleven thousand years B.C.E. The region was home to a variety of edible and easily cultivated crops: wheat and barley among the cereal crops, and lentils, peas, and chickpeas among the vegetables.

Humans invented agriculture between 7,000 and 10,000 years ago, during the Neolithic era, or the New Stone Age. There were eight Neolithic crops: emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, hulled barley, chickpeas, and flax. The Neolithic era ended with the development of metal tools.

Types of Agriculture

• Nomadic Herding.
• Shifting Cultivation.
• Intensive Subsistence Agriculture.
• Commercial Dairy Farming.
• Commercial Grain Cultivation.
• Livestock Ranching.
• Mediterranean Agriculture.
• Mixed Farming.