Prasanna

On this page, you will find NCERT Class 9 Civics Chapter 2 Notes Pdf free download. CBSE Class 9 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 2 SST What is Democracy? Why Democracy? will seemingly, help them to revise the important concepts in less time.

What is Democracy? Why Democracy? Class 9 Notes Social Science Civics Chapter 2

CBSE Class 9 Civics Chapter 2 Notes Understanding the Lesson

1. Democracy is a form of government in which the rulers are elected by the people. It is the most prevalent form of government in the world today and it is expanding to more countries. It is better than other forms of government.

2. In a democracy, major decisions are taken by those elected by the people. A democracy must be based on a free and fair election where those currently in power have a fair chance of losing.

3. Democracy is based on a fundamental principle of political equality. It means that in a democracy, each adult citizen must have one vote and each vote must have one value.

4. A democratic government cannot do whatever it likes, simply because it has won an election. It has to respect some basic rules. In particular it has to respect some guarantees to the minorities.

5. Democracy is better than other forms of government because it is a more accountable form of government. It improves the quality of decision-making and enhances the dignity of citizens. Democracy also allows us to correct its own mistakes.

6. arguments are given against democracy-leaders keep changing in democracy which leads to instability, democracy is all about political competition and power play, democracy leads to corruption for it is based on electoral competition, etc.

7. Democracy cannot get us everything and it is not the solution to all problems. But it is clearly better than any other alternatives that we know. It offers better chances of a good decision.

8. The most common form that democracy takes in our times is that of representative democracy. In the countries we call democracy, all the people do not rule. A majority is allowed to take decisions on behalf of all the people. Even the majority does not rule directly. The majority of people rule through their elected representatives.

9. It is also important to distinguish between a democracy and a good democracy. A good democracy is dedicated for the cause of the poor and the helpless. A good democracy is that which provides every citizen equal right to vote, equal information, basic education and equal resources.

10. No country is a perfect democracy. However, every democracy has to try to realise the ideals of a democratic decision-making. This cannot be achieved once and for all. This requires a constant effort to save and strengthen democratic forms of decision-making.

11. We as citizens can also play important role in making our country more or less democratic. Other forms of government do not require all citizens to take part in politics. But democracy depends on active political participation by all the citizens.

What is Democracy? Why Democracy? Class 9 CBSE Notes Important Terms

Democracy: A form of government in which rulers are elected by the people.

Contemporary: Living or occurring at the same time.

Election: A formal decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold public office.

Designation: A official name, description, or title.

Malpractices: Injurious, negligent, or improper practices.

Campaign: An organised effort which seeks to influence the decision-making process within a specific group.

Autocratic: Relating to a ruler who has absolute power.

Accountable: Required or expected to justify actions or decisions; responsible.

Minority: The smaller number or part, especially a number or part representing less than half of the whole.

On this page, you will find NCERT Class 10 History Chapter 8 Notes Pdf free download. CBSE Class 10 Social Science Notes History Chapter 8 SST Novels, Society and History will seemingly, help them to revise the important concepts in less time.

Novels, Society and History Class 10 Notes Social Science History Chapter 8

CBSE Class 10 History Chapter 8 Notes Understanding the Lesson

1. The novel is a form of literature, born from print. It first took firm root in England and France. Novels began to be written from the seventeenth century, but they really bloomed from the eighteenth century with the emergence of new groups of lower-middle-class people in England and France.

2. With the growth of readership and expansion of the market for books, authors began to experiment with different literary styles. Walter Scott collected popular Scottish ballads which he used in his historical novels about the wars between Scottish clans. The epistolary novel used the private and personal form of letters to tell its story. Samuel Richardson’s Pamela told much of its story through an exchange of letters between two lovers.

3. Initially, novels were costly and therefore not accessible to the poor. But the establishment of circulating libraries in 1740 solved this problem. Technological improvements in printing brought down the price of books and innovations in marketing led to expanded sales.

4. By and by novels gained popularity. While reading novels, the reader was transported to another person’s world. In rural areas, people would collect to hear one of them reading a novel aloud, often becoming deeply involved in the lives of characters. When Charles Dickens’s Pickwick Papers was serialised in a magazine in 1836, it attracted a vast number of readers.

5. Some of the nineteenth-century novels focused on the terrible effects of industrialization on people’s lives and characters. For example, Charles Dickens’s Hard Times and Oliver Twist. Emile Zola’s Germinal on the life of a young miner in France explores in harsh detail the grim conditions of miners’ lives.

6. By the eighteenth century, novels began exploring the world of women-their emotions and identities, their experiences and problems. The novels of Jane Austen give us a glimpse of the world of women in genteel rural society in the early-nineteenth-century Britain. But other women novelists such as Charlotte Bronte’s Jane Eyre dealt with women who broke established norms of society before adjusting to them.

7. Novels for young boys were full of adventure set in places remote from Europe. Books like R.L. Stevenson’s Treasure Island and Rudyard Kipling’s Jungle Book became very popular. G.A. Henty’s historical adventure novels for boys were also popular during the height of the British empire.

8. For adolescent girls, there were love stories. Novels like Ramona by Helen Hunt Jackson and a series entitled What Katy Did by Sarah Chauncey Woolsey became very popular among girls.

9. Novels became popular in India too but from the nineteenth century when Indians got familiar with the Western novel. Some of the earliest Indian novels were written in Bengali and Marathi. The earliest novel in Marathi was Baba Padmanji’s Yamuna Paryatan, which used a simple style of storytelling to speak about the plight of widows. This was followed by Lakshman Moreshwar Halbe’s.

10. Novels began appearing in south Indian languages during the period of colonial rule. O. Chandu Menon’s Indulekha was the first modern novel in Malayalam. Kandukuri Viresalingam’s Rajashekhara Caritamu was in Telugu.

11. In the north, novels began to be written in Hindi. The first proper modern Hindi novel titled Pariksha  Guru was written by Srinivas Das of Delhi. But this novel could not win many readers, as it was perhaps too moralizing in its style.

12. However, a novel-reading public in Hindi was created by the writings of Devaki Nandan Khatri. His best-seller, Chandrakanta is believed to have contributed immensely in popularising the Hindi language and the Nagari script among the educated classes of those times. But Hindi novel achieved excellence with the writing of Premchand. His novels like Sevasadan, Rangbhoomi and Godan became great hits.

13. Many of the Bengali novels were located in the past, their characters, events and love stories based on historical events. Another group of novels dealt with the social problems and romantic relationships between men and women. The popular Bengali novelists were Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay and Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay.

14. Novels were a valuable source of information on Indian customs and traditions. They were also meant to popularise some ideas. Writers like Viresalingam used the novel mainly to propagate their ideas about society among a wider readership. Novels also helped in creating a sense of natural pride among their readers by glorifying accounts of the past.

15. The novel was a medium of entertainment among the middle class. The circulation of printed books allowed people to amuse themselves in new ways. There was a great demand for detective and mystery novels. Reading a novel was just like daydreaming.

16. Not all welcomed novels. There were many people who advised, especially women and children to stay away from the immoral influence of novels. Some parents kept novels in the lofts in their house, out of their children’s reach. Young people often read them in secret.

17. Women did not only read novels, they also began to write them. In the early decades of the twentieth century, women in south India wrote novels and short stories.

18. By and by novels began to be written to empower women. Rokeya Hossein’s novel Padmarag showed the need for women to reform their condition by their own actions. With growing trend of writing novels or reading them among women, many men became suspicious. As a result, women began to write in secret.

19. Novels were not only written by members of the upper caste but also by the lower caste. Potheri Kunjambu was a lower caste writer from north Kerala. He wrote a novel called Saraswativijayam in 1892, mounting a strong attack on caste oppression.

20. From the 1920s, in Bengal too a new kind of novel emerged that depicted the lives of peasants and low castes. Advaita Malla Burman’s Titash Ekti Nadir Naam is an epic about the Mallas, a community of fisherfolk.

21. Vaikkom Muhammad Basheer was a Muslim novelist in Malayalam. He wrote short novels and stories in the ordinary language of conversation. His novels spoke about details from the everyday life of Muslim households. He also brought into Malayalam writing themes which were considered very unusual at that time – poverty, insanity and life in prison.

22. The novel helped in popularising the sense of belonging to a common nation. Another way was to include various classes in the novel so that they could be seen to belong to a shared world. Premchand’s novels are filled with all kinds of powerful characters drawn from all levels of society.

Novels, Society and History Class 10 CBSE Notes Important Terms

Gentlemanly classes: People who claimed noble birth and high social position.

Epistolary: A type of novel written in the form of a series of letters.

Serialized: A format in which the story is published in installments, each part in a new issue of a journal.

Vernacular: The normal, spoken form of a language rather than the formal, literary form.

Satire: A form of representation through writing, drawing, painting, etc. that provides a criticism of society in a manner that is witty and clever.

Classical: Representing an exemplary standard within a traditional and long-established form or style.

Notes of History Class 10 Chapter 8 Time Period

1740: Introduction of circulating libraries.

1749: Henry Fielding’s Tom Jones was issued in six volumes.

1836: Charles Dickens’s Pickwick Papers was serialized in a magazine.

1852: Karuna o Phulmonir Bibaran, first novel in Bengali was published.

1857: Bhudeb Mukhopadhyay’s Anguriya Binimoy, the first historical novel in Bengal was written.

1882: Srinivas Das’s novel Pariksha Guru was published. It was the first proper modern novel.

1885: Emile Zola’s Germinal was published on the life of a young miner in France.

1894: Jungle Book of Rudyard Kipling became great hits.

1905: Rokeya Hossein’s Sultana’s Dream was published. In it, she shows a topsy-turvy world in which women take the place of men.

1936: Godan was published and became Premchand’s best-known work.

On this page, you will find NCERT Class 10 History Chapter 6 Notes Pdf free download. CBSE Class 10 Social Science Notes History Chapter 6 SST Work, Life and Leisure will seemingly, help them to revise the important concepts in less time.

Work, Life and Leisure Class 10 Notes Social Science History Chapter 6

CBSE Class 10 History Chapter 6 Notes Understanding the Lesson

1. Urbanisation has a long history. It took over 200 years to develop the modern city worldwide. Three processes that have shaped modern cities in decisive ways are – the rise of industrial capitalism, the establishment of colonial rule over large parts of the world, and the development of democratic ideals.

2. The process of urbanisation is traced out in two modern cities namely London and Bombay. London was the largest city in the world, and an imperial centre in the nineteenth century. Bombay was one of the most important modern cities in the Indian subcontinent.

3. London: By 1750, London was a colossal city with a population of about 675,000. Over the nineteenth century, it continued to expand. Its population multiplied four-fold in the 70 years between 1810 and 1880.

4. The city of London was a powerful magnet for migrant populations, even though it did not have large factories. During the First World War, London began manufacturing motor cars and electrical goods, and the number of large factories increased that opened job opportunities.

5. Growth of London was marked by rise in crime. Criminal activities increased in the city in the 1870s. Several measures were taken to put a check on such activities, for example, the population of criminals was counted, their activities were watched, etc. Many of the criminals listed were poor people who lived by stealing.

6. Poverty forced a large number of women to work as domestic servants. They also made their living through activities like tailoring, washing or matchbox making. So far children of the marginal groups were concerned, they found work in small underpaid factories. However, the Compulsory Elementary Education Act, that came in 1870, stopped children from doing work in industries.

7. As people from countryside began pouring in London after the Industrial Revolution, they faced the problem of housing. Factory or workshop owners did not house the migrant workers. Instead, individual landowners put up cheap, and usually unsafe, tenements for the new arrivals.

8. In comparison to countryside poverty was more visible in the city. People were bound to live in crowded slums which lacked sanitation. Hence, concern grew among the better-off city dwellers. They demanded that slums simply be cleared away. As a result, workers’ mass housing schemes were planned for the London poor.

9. A variety of steps were taken to clean up London. Attempts were made to decongest localities, green the open spaces, reduce pollution and landscape the city. Large blocks of apartments were built. Attempts were also made to bridge the differences between city and countryside through ideas such as the Green Belt around London.

10. Between 1919 and 1939, a million houses were built by local authorities for housing the working classes. As the city expanded, new forms of mass transport became necessary to enable people living in garden suburbs to walk to work in the city.

11. The London underground railway partially solved the housing crisis by carrying large masses of people to and from the city. The very first section of the underground in the world opened on 10 January, 1863 between Paddington and Farrington Street in London. Now the population in the city became more dispersed.

12. The function and the shape of the family were completely transformed by life in the industrial city. Ties between members of households loosened, and among the working class the institution of marriage tended to break down. A new spirit of individualism developed among both men and women. But they did not have equal access to the new urban space. The public space became increasingly a male preserve and the domestic sphere was seen as the proper place for women.

13. City people entertained themselves as per their affordability and taste. Wealthy Britishers went to the opera and the theatre. Working classes met in pubs to have a drink, exchange news etc. Music-halls were popular among the lower classes. By the early twentieth century, cinema became the great source of entertainment for mixed audiences.

14. Bombay: Indian cities did not mushroom in the nineteenth century because the pace of urbanisation in India was rather slow under colonial rule. Bombay was the premier city of India which expanded rapidly from the late nineteenth century.

15. Bombay became the capital of the Bombay Presidency in 1819. The city expanded quickly. With the growth of trade in cotton and opium, large communities of traders and bankers came to settle in Bombay. Artisans and shopkeepers also flowed in the city. The establishment of textile mills opened the door for the migrants who were mostly from the nearby district of Ratnagiri.

16. Bombay was a crowded city. From its earliest days, the city did not grow according to any plan, and houses, especially in the Fort area, were interspersed with gardens. The crisis of housing and water supply became acute by the mid-1850s. The arrival of the textile mills only increased the pressure on Bombay’s housing.

17. Class distinction was clearly visible in the city. The elite class which included richer Paj’sis, Muslims and upper caste traders and industrialists of Bombay lived in bungalows while the working people lived in the thickly populated

18. Chawls were multi-storeyed structures. Each chawl was divided into smaller one-room tenements which had no private toilets. The homes being small, streets and neighbourhoods were used for a variety of activities such as cooking, washing and sleeping. Liquor shops and akharas came up in any empty spot. Chawls were also the place of the exchange of news about jobs, strikes, riots or demonstrations.

19. Chawls also lacked sanitation. There were fears among people about the plague epidemic. Hence, the City of Bombay Improvement Trust was established in 1898. It focused on clearing poorer homes out of the city centre.

20. Since there was scarcity of land in Bombay, so massive reclamation projects were taken up to develop the city. As a result, Bombay expanded to about 22 square miles. But increase in population did not stop. So, attempts were also made to utilise every bit of the available area. New areas were reclaimed from the sea.

21. Despite its massive overcrowding and difficult living conditions, Bombay appears to many as a ‘city of dreams’. There has been a flourishing film industry in the city. Many Bombay films deal with the arrival in the city of new migrants, and their encounters with the real pressures of daily life.

22. The process of urbanisation deteriorated the quality of air and water. Excessive noise became a feature of urban life. Hence, people in England joined campaigns for cleaner air. The Smoke Abatement Acts of 1847 and 1853 did not always work to clear the air. In India, Calcutta had a long history of air pollution. Its inhabitants inhaled grey smoke. The main polluters were the industries and establishments that used steam engine run on coal. The Bengal Smoke Nuisance Commission intervened and finally industrial smoke was controlled.

Work, Life and Leisure Class 10 CBSE Notes Important Terms

Urbanisation: Development of a city or town.

Metropolis: A large, densely populated city of a country or state, often the capital of the region.

Philanthropist: Someone who works for social upliftment and charity, donating time and money for the purpose.

Tenement: Run-down and often overcrowded apartment house, especially in a poor section of a large city.

Temperance Movement: A largely middle class-led social reform movement which emerged in Britain and America from the nineteenth century onwards. It identified alcoholism as the cause of the ruin of families and society, and aimed at reducing the consumption of alcoholic drinks particularly amongst the working classes.

Asphyxiation: Suffocation due to lack of oxygen supply.

Individualism: A theory which promotes the liberty, rights or independent action of the individual, rather than of the community.

Presidency cities: The capitals of the Bombay, Bengal and Madras Presidencies in British India.

Akharas: Traditional wrestling schools, generally located in every neighbourhood, where young people were trained to ensure both physical and moral fitness.

Depressed classes: A term often used to denote those who were seen within the caste order as ‘lower castes’ and ‘untouchables’.

Reclamation: The reclaiming of marshy or submerged areas or other wasteland for settlements, cultivation or other use.

Notes of History Class 10 Chapter 6 Time Period

1784: First reclamation project in Bombay began.

1847-1853: The Smoke Abatement Acts of 1847 and 1853 were passed.

10 January, 1863: The first section of the underground railway in the world opened between Paddington and Farrington Street in London.

1863: Calcutta became the first Indian city to get Smoke Nuisance Legislation 1865: Bombay’s first Municipal Commissioner, Arthur Crawford was appointed.

1880: The famous novel “Debganer Martye Aagaman” was written by Durgacharan Ray.

November 1887: A riot by London’s poor took place. It is widely known as the Bloody Sunday.

1918: To keep rents reasonable, Rent Act was passed.

1925: Bombay became the first film capital of India.

On this page, you will find NCERT Class 10 History Chapter 3 Notes Pdf free download. CBSE Class 10 Social Science Notes History Chapter 3 SST Nationalism in India will seemingly, help them to revise the important concepts in less time.

Nationalism in India Class 10 Notes Social Science History Chapter 3

CBSE Class 10 History Chapter 3 Notes Understanding the Lesson

1. In India, the growth of modern nationalism is closely connected to the anti-colonial movement. People began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle with colonialism.

2. The national movement began spreading to new areas and developing new modes of struggle after the First World War in 1919. The reason was clear. People were hopeful that their hardships would end after the war was over. But that did not happen. At this stage, a new mode of struggle was necessary to initiate under the guidance of a leader.

3. Mahatma Gandhi emerged as the new leader with his idea of satyagraha. The idea of satyagraha emphasized the power of truth and the need to search for truth. A satyagrahi could win the battle through non-violence. Mahatma Gandhi believed that non-violence could unite all Indians.

4. After arriving in India from South Africa, Mahatma Gandhi successfully organised satyagraha movements at various places such as Champaran in Bihar, Kheda and Ahmedabad in Gujarat, etc. and got huge success.

5. In 1919, Gandhiji decided to launch a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act (1919). This Act gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.

6. Rallies began to be organized in various cities against such unjust laws. Workers went on strike in railway workshops, and shops were closed down. On 13 April, 1919 the infamous Jallianwala Bagh incident took place. Thousands of innocent people were killed when General Dyer opened fire on them.

7. This ghastly action of the British angered the common mass in India. They took to the streets in towns and attacked government buildings. The government responded with brutal repression, seeking to humiliate and terrorize people.

8. Mahatma Gandhi now launched a more broad-based movement in India. This movement came to be known as the non-cooperation movement. It began in 1920. Various social groups participated in this movement, each with its own specific aspiration.

9. Thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned and lawyers gave up their legal practices. But the effects on non-cooperation on the economic front were more dramatic. Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed and foreign cloth burnt in huge bonfires.

10. The non-cooperation movement could not last for a long time. In February 1922, Mahatma Gandhi decided to withdraw this movement as he felt it was turning violent in many places and satyagrahis needed to be properly trained before they would be ready for mass struggles.

11. Within the Congress, some moderate leaders like C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru argued for a return to council politics but younger leaders like Nehru and Bose pressed for more radical mass agitation and for full independence.

12. In 1928, the Simon Commission arrived in India to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in the country (India) and suggest changes. But the commission was boycotted because it did not have a single Indian member. In an effort to win them over, the Viceroy, Lord Irwin, announced in October 1929, a vague offer of‘dominion status’ for India. But this did not satisfy the Congress leaders.

13. In December 1929, under the presidency of J.L. Nehru, the Lahore Congress formalized the demand of ‘Purna Swaraj’ or full independence for India. It was declared that 26 January 1930, would be celebrated as the Independence Day when people were to take a pledge to struggle for complete independence. But the celebrations could not attract much attention.

14. In 1930, Mahatma Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience Movement when his demand to abolish the salt tax was not fulfilled. His famous salt march was accompanied by 78 of his trusted volunteers. The march was over 240 miles, from Gandhiji’s ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarati coastal town of Dandi. Thousands joined Mahatma Gandhi. On 6 April, he reached Dandi and violated the law, by manufacturing salt.

15. The movement spread far and wide. Worried by the developments, the colonial government began arresting the Congress leaders one by one. This led to violent clashes in many places. A frightened government responded with a policy of brutal repression.

16. Mahatma Gandhi called off the movement and entered into a pact with Irwin on 5 March 1931, which came to be known as Gandhi-Irwin Pact. As per this Pact Gandhiji went to London in December 1931 for the Second Round Table Conference, but the negotiations broke down and he returned disappointed.

17. Back in India, he found that a series of measures had been imposed on Indian leaders to prevent them from organizing meetings, demonstrations and boycotts with great apprehension, Gandhiji relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement. But it lost its momentum by 1934.

18. This movement had its own limitations. Some of the Muslim political organizations in  India were not enthusiastic in their response to this movement. So far dalit participation was concerned, it was also limited.

19. From the mid-1920s, relations between Hindus and Muslims began to worsen. Each community organized religious processions with militant fervour, provoking Hindu-Muslim communal clashes and riots in various cities. So, when the Civil Disobedience Movement was started, large sections of Muslims could not respond to the call for a united struggle.

20. Many Muslim leaders and intellectuals expressed their concern about the status of Muslims as a minority within India. They feared that the culture and identity of minorities would be lost under the domination of Hindu majority.

Nationalism in India Class 10 CBSE Notes Important Terms

Forced recruitment: A process by which the colonial state forced people to join the army.

Boycott: The refusal to deal and associate with people, or participate in activities, or buy and use things, usually a form of protest.

Picket: A form of demonstration or protest by which people block the entrance to a shop, factory, or office.

Begar: Labour that villagers were forced to contribute without any payment.

Khadi: Indian hand-spun cloth.

Satyagraha: Following the path of truth and non-violence,

Sanatan’s: The conservative high-caste Hindus.

Bhangis: The sweepers.

Harijaiv: The children of God.

Notes of History Class 10 Chapter 3 Time Period

1915: Mahatma Gandhi returned to India from South Africa.

1916: Mahatma Gandhi traveled to Champaran in Bihar.

1917: Mahatma Gandhi organized satyagraha to support the peasants of the Kheda district in Gujarat.

1918-19: Distressed UP peasants organized by Baba Ramchandra

April 1919: Gandhian hartal against Rowlatt Act; Jallianwalla Bagh massacre

January 1921: Non-cooperation and Khilafat movement launched

February 1922: Chauri Chaura; Gandhiji withdrew Non-cooperation movement

May 1924: Alluri Sitarama Raju arrested ending a two-year armed tribal struggle

December 1929: Lahore Congress; Congress adopted the demand for ‘Purna Swaraj’

1930: B.R. Ambedkar established Depressed Classes Association

March 1930: Gandhiji’ began Civil Disobedience Movement by breaking salt law at Dandi.

March 1931: Gandhiji ended Civil Disobedience Movement

Dec. 1931: Second Round Table Conference

1932: Civil Disobedience re-launched.

On this page, you will find Mensuration Class 8 Notes Maths Chapter 11 Pdf free download. CBSE NCERT Class 8 Maths Notes Chapter 11 Mensuration will seemingly help them to revise the important concepts in less time.

CBSE Class 8 Maths Chapter 11 Notes Mensuration

Mensuration Class 8 Notes Conceptual Facts

1. Area of rectangle
A = Length x Breadth
= a x b sq. units

2. Area of square
A = (side)²
= a² sq. units

3. Area of triangle
A = \(\frac{1}{2}\) x b x h sq.units

4. Area of equilateral triangle
A = \(\frac{\sqrt{3}}{4} a^{2}\) sq.units

5. Area of parallelogram
A = b x h sq. units

6. Area of Circle
A = πr² sq. units

7. Area of trapezium
A = \(\frac{1}{2}\)(a + b) x h sq. units

8. Area of general quadrilateral
A = Area of ΔABC + area of ΔACD
= \(\frac{1}{2}\) (a + b) x AC sq. units

9. Area of rhombus
A = \(\frac{1}{2}\) (d₁ x d₂) sq. units

10. Surface area of cube
A = 6a² sq. units

11. Surface area of cuboid
A = 2 [ab + bc + ca] sq. units

12. Surface area of cylinder
A = 2πrh sq. units

13. Volume of cube V = a³ units

14. Volume of cuboid V = a x b x c cu. units

15. Volume of cylinder V = πr²h

On this page, you will find NCERT Class 9 Geography Chapter 6 Notes Pdf free download. CBSE Class 9 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 6 SST Population will seemingly, help them to revise the important concepts in less time.

Population Class 9 Notes Social Science Geography Chapter 6

CBSE Class 9 Geography Chapter 6 Notes Understanding the Lesson

1. Population is an important topic in social studies. Everything such as resources, calamities, disasters, etc. are meaningful only in relation to human beings.

2. Human beings are producers and consumers of earth’s resources. Therefore, it is important to know how many people are there in a country, where do they live, how and why their numbers are increasing and what are their characteristics. The Census of India provides us with information regarding the population of our country.

3. India’s population as on March 2011 stood at 1,210 million, which account for 17.5 per cent of the world’s population. These 1.21 million people are unevenly distributed.

4. The 2011 Census data reveals that Uttar Pradesh with a population size of 199 million people is the most populous state of India. On the other hand, Sikkim has a population of just about 0.6 million and Lakshadweep has only 64,429 thousand people.

5. Almost half of India’s population lives in just five states-Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.

6. The population density of India in the year 2011 was 382 persons per sq. km. Densities vary from 1,102 persons per sq. km in Bihar to only 17 persons per sq. km in Arunachal Pradesh.

7. The numbers, distribution and composition of the population are constantly changing due to births, deaths and migrations.

8. Growth of population can be expressed in two ways-in terms of absolute numbers and in terms of percentage change per year.

9. India’s population has been steadily increasing from 361 million in 1951 to 1210 million in 2011. From 1951 to 1981, the annual rate of population growth was steadily increasing. Since 1981, however the rate of growth started declining gradually.

10. The declining trend of the growth rate is indeed a positive indicator of the efforts of birth control.

11. There are three main processes of change of population-birth rates, death rates and migration. The natural increases of population is the difference between birth rates and death rates.

12. In India, most migrations have been from rural to urban areas which provide increased employment opportunities and better living conditions.

13. The urban population has increased from 17.29 per cent of the total population in 1951 to 31.80 per cent in 2011. There has been a significant increase in the number of million-plus cities from 35 to 53 in just one decade, i.e. 2001 to 2011.

14. Age composition is one of the most basic characteristics of a population.

15. The population of a nation is generally grouped into three broad categories—Children below 15 years, Working age (15-59 years) and Aged (above 59 years).

16. Sex ratio is an important social indicator to measure the extent of equality between males and females in a society at a given time. The sex ratio in the country has always remained unfavourable to females.

17. Literacy is an important quality of a population. Low levels of literacy are a serious obstacle for economic improvement.

18. The percentage of population that is economically active is an important index of development.

19. A great number of occupations are found in any country. These occupations are generally classified as primary, secondary and tertiary.

20. The percentage of people working in different activities varies in developed and developing countries. Developed nations have a high proportion of people in secondary, and tertiary activities. Developing countries tend to have a higher proportion of their workforce engaged in primary activities.

21. Health is an important component of population composition. Sustained efforts of government programmes have made significant improvements in the heath conditions of the Indian population.

22. Despite considerable achievements, the health situation is a matter of major concern for India. The per capita calorie consumption is much below the recommended levels and malnutrition afflicts a large percentage of our population.

23. Adolescent population constitutes one-fifth of the total population of India. Adolescents are generally grouped in the age-grouped of 10 to 19 years. They are the most important resource for the future.

24. The diet available to adolescents is inadequate in all nutrients. A large number of adolescent girls suffer from anaemia.

25. The National Population Policy (NPP) provides a policy framework for imparting free and compulsory school education up to 14 years of age, reducing infant mortality rate to below 30 per 1000 live births, achieving universal immunisation of children against all vaccine-preventable diseases, etc.

26. Education and heath should be given much importance because a well-educated healthy population can play an important role in country’s development.

Population Class 9 CBSE Notes Important Terms

Adolescence: A period in which a person is no longer a child and not yet an adult. Such persons are grouped in the age-group of 10 to 19 years.

Birth rate: The number of live births for every 100 persons in a year.

Census: An official enumeration of population done periodically.

Population density: The number of persons per unit area.

Population growth: Change in the number of inhabitants of a country/territory during a specific period of time.

Death rate: The number of deaths per thousand persons in a year.

Migration: The movement of people across regions and territories.

Sex ratio: The number of females per thousand males.

Literacy: The ability to read, write and use arithmetic.

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CBSE Class 8 Maths Chapter 10 Notes Visualising Solid Shapes

Visualising Solid Shapes Class 8 Notes Conceptual Facts

3-D figures: Any shape which occupies space and has three dimensions, i.e., length, breadth and heights is called 3-D solid or a figure.

Parts of a solid objects:

• Face
• Vertex
• Edge

Types of Solids:

(i) Prism:

(ii) Pyramids:

(iii) Other Solid

Euler’s Formula:
Number of faces + Number of vertices – Number of edges = 2

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Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Class 9 Notes Social Science Geography Chapter 5

CBSE Class 9 Geography Chapter 5 Notes Understanding the Lesson

1. India has a wonderful plant diversity. It is blessed with about 47,000 plant species. There are about 15,000 flowering plants in our country which account for 6 per cent in the world’s total number of flowering plants.

2. India also has approximately 90,000 species of animals as well as a rich variety of fish in its marine waters.

3. Natural vegetation grows naturally without human aid. Cultivated crops and fruits, orchards form part of vegetation but not natural vegetation.

4. The huge diversity in flora and fauna kingdom is due to the factors, such as—relief (land and soil), climate (temperature, sunlight and precipitation) and ecosystem.

5. All the plants and animals in an area are interdependent and inter-related to each other in their physical environment.

6. Human beings are also integral part of the ecosystem. They utilise vegetation and wildlife. But their greed leads to over-utilisation of these resources.

7. There are five types of vegetation-tropical evergreen, tropical deciduous, tropical thorn forests and scrubs, montane and mangrove forests.

8. Tropical evergreen forests are found in the heavy rainfall areas. They are at their best in areas having more than 200 cm of rainfall with a short dry season. The trees reach great heights up to 60 metres or even above. Trees like ebony, mahogany, rosewood, rubber and cinchona and animals like elephants, monkeys, lemur and deer are found in these forests.

9. Tropical deciduous forests are also called the monsoon forests and spread over the region receiving rainfall between 200 cm and 70 cm. On the basis of the availability of water, these forests are divided into moist and dry deciduous. Trees like teak, sal, peepal and neem and animals such as lion, pig, deer and elephants are found in these forests.

10. The thorn forests and scrubs are found in regions with less than 70 cm of rainfall. Acacias, palms, euphorbias and cacti are the main plant species. Animals such as rats, mice, rabbits tigers, etc. are found in these forests.

11. Montane forests are found in mountainous areas. Trees like oaks and chestnuts are found between a height of 1000 and 2000 metres. Between 1500 and 3000 metres, temperate forests containing coniferous trees like pine, deodar, silver fir, etc. are found. The common animals found in these forests are Kashmir stag, spotted deer, wild sheep, jackrabbit, Tibetan antelope, etc.

12. The mangrove tidal forests are found in the areas of coasts influenced by tides. Trees such as Sundari, palm, coconut, keora, etc. are found in these forests. Royal Bengal Tiger is the famous animal in these forests.

13. Wildlife: India is equally rich in its fauna. It has approximately 90,000 of animal species. Its shares between 5 and 8 per cent of the world’s amphibians, reptiles and mammals.

14. The elephants are found in the hot wet forests of Assam, Karnataka and Kerala. One-horn rhinoceroses live in swampy and marshy lands of Assam and West Bengal.

15. India is the only country in the world that has both tigers and lions. The natural habitat of the Indian lion in the Gir forest in Gujarat. Ladakh’s freezing high altitudes are home to yak, the shaggy homed wild ox, etc.

16. In the rivers, lakes and coastal areas, turtles, crocodiles and gharials are found. Birdlife in India is colourful. Peacocks, pheasants, ducks, parakeets, cranes and pigeons are found in the forests and wetlands of the country.

17. Due to excessive exploitation of the plants and animal resources by human beings, the ecosystem has been disturbed. About 1,300 plant species are endangered and 20 species are extinct.

18. Fourteen biosphere reserves have been set up in the country to protect flora and fauna. Project Tiger, Project Rhino, Project Great Indian Bustard and many other eco-developmental projects have been introduced by the government. National Parks, Wildlife sanctuaries and zoological gardens have been set up to protect natural heritage.

Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Class 9 CBSE Notes Important Terms

Vegetation: Plants considered collectively, especially those found in a particular area or habitat.

Flora: Plants a particular region or period.

Fauna: Species of animals.

Brome: A very large ecosystem on land having distinct types of vegetation and animal life.

Wildlife: Wild animals collectively, the native fauna and sometimes flora of a region.

Ecosystem: A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.

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CBSE Class 8 Maths Chapter 9 Notes Algebraic Expressions and Identities

Algebraic Expressions and Identities Class 8 Notes Conceptual Facts

1. Algebraic Expression: A combination of numbers which includes literal number connected by the
symbols +, -, x and + is called an algebraic expression.

For example: 5x, 8x -3, 2x + 3y, \(\frac{3}{4}\)x² 4xyz are some algebraic expressions.
Here. 5, 8, 3, 2. and 4 are constants and the literal numbers are x, y and z.

The different parts of the expression are called terms.
5x, 8x, 2x, 3y, \(\frac{3 x^{2}}{4}\) etc., are all the terms.

2. Coefficient: A coefficient is a multiplicative factor in some term of a polynomial. It is usually a number,
but may be only expression along.

For example in 7x² – 3xy + y + 3. The first three terms respectively have coefficient 7, -3 and 3 is a
constant in given polynomial.

3. Monomial: The expression having only one term is called monomial.
For example: 3x, 8xy, 6×2, 11xyz, etc.

4. Binomial: The expression containing two terms is called binomial.
Forexample: 2x +y,x +y, 3xy-5z, \(\frac{1}{2}\) xy + 5, etc.

5. Trinomial: The expression containing three terms is called trinomial.
For example: x + 2y + 3, xy – z +\(\frac{1}{2}\) , \(\frac{1}{2}\) x²+ 2x + 5, etc.

6. Polynomial: Algebraic expression containing one or more terms with non-zero coefficient is called a
polynomial.
For example: 2+3x, x+y+3z-5, \(\frac{1}{2}\) x²+yz -5, etc.

7. Like and Unlike Terms: Algebraic expressions having same combination of literal numbers are called
like terms.
For example: 4xy, -5xy, –\(\frac{17}{3}\) xy, are like terms.

8. Algebraic expressions having different combinations of literal numbers are called unlike terms.
For example: (xy, yz, zx), (2x², – 5xy², 7xyz), (3, – 5x, 7yz) etc.

9. Degree of Algebraic Expression: Highest power of the variable of an algebraic expression is called its degree.
For example: Degree of 3x² – 7x + 5 is 2.

Addition or Subtraction of two or more polynomials:

• Collect the like terms together.
• Find the sum or difference of the numerical coefficients of these terms.

For example:
(i) Add: 2x²y³, -5x²y³ + \(\frac{11}{2}\)x²y^z
Answer:

(ii) Subtract: (3x – 5) from (8x – 25)
Answer:

[Arrange the terms columnwise and change the sign of and add]

Multiplication Rule of Signs:
(+x) x (+y) = (+xy)
(+x) x (-y) = (-xy)
(-x) x (y) = (-xy)
(-x) x (-y) = (+xy)

 

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CBSE Class 8 Maths Chapter 8 Notes Comparing Quantities

Comparing Quantities Class 8 Notes Conceptual Facts

1. In every hundred or per hundred is called as percent. For example: 30% means 30 in every hundred.
To change a percentage to a fraction:
40% \(\frac{40}{100}\)=0.4 , 125% = \(\frac{125}{100}\)=1.25

2. Percentage increase and decrease
Increase 240 by 10% = 240 + \(\frac{10}{100}\) x 240 = 240 + 24 = 264
Decrease 180 by 18% = 180 – \(\frac{18}{100}\) x 180 = 180 – 32.4 = 147.6

3. Profit and Loss
Profit = SP – CP,Loss= CP – SP

4. Profit and Loss are always calculated on CP.

5. Marked Price: The printed or the tagged price of an article is known as marked price or MP.

6. Discount: The deduction allowed on the market price is called Discount. It is generally given in percent.

7. Net Price: The selling price after the discount to an article is called its Net Price.

SP = MP – Discount
\(\mathrm{MP}=\left(\frac{100 \times \mathrm{SP}}{100-\mathrm{Discount} \%}\right)\)

8. Sales Tax: Sales tax is a tax levied by the Government on the selling price of an article at a rate given by the Government.

9. Value Added Tax (VAT): VAT is an extra tax which is levied and collected by State Government in lieu of State Tax.

10. Simple Interest:
\(\mathrm{SI}=\frac{\text { Principal } \times \text { Rate } \times \text { Time }}{100}\)

11. Compound Interest: Cl = Amount – Principal
\(\mathrm{CI}=\mathrm{P}\left(1+\frac{r}{100}\right)^{n}-\mathrm{P}\)

Amount = \(\mathrm{P}\left(1+\frac{r}{100}\right)^{n}\) where n represent time in years.

12. Conversion of Period:

• If interest is calculated half-yearly or semi-annually, then ‘r’ is halved and T is doubled.
• If interest is calculated quarterly, then V’ is one-fourth and T is four times.

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Climate Class 9 Notes Social Science Geography Chapter 4

CBSE Class 9 Geography Chapter 4 Notes Understanding the Lesson

1. Climate refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large area for a long period of time.

2. Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere over an area at any point of time.

3. The elements of weather and climate are the same i.e., temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity and precipitation.

4. The climate of India is described as the monsoon type. Temperature and precipitation vary from place to place and season to season.

5. In upper parts of Himalayas precipitation is mostly in the form of snowfall but in the rest of the country it rains. Most parts of the country receives rainfall from June to September. There is decrease in rainfall generally from east to west in the Northern Plains.

6. There are six major controls of the climate of any place-latitude, altitude, pressure and wind system, distance from the sea, ocean currents and relief features.

7. India’s climate has characteristics of tropical as well as sub-tropical climates. The Himalayas in the north of India prevent the cold winds from Central Asia from entering the sub-continent.

8. The climate and associated weather conditions in India are governed by-pressure and surface winds, upper air circulation; and western cyclonic disturbances and tropical cyclones.

9. The pressure and wind conditions over India are unique. During winter, there is a high-pressure area north of the Himalayas. In summer, a low-pressure area develops over interior Asia as well as over northwestern India.

10. The climate of India is strongly influenced by monsoon winds. The monsoons are experienced in the tropical area roughly between 20°N and 20°S.

11. The duration of monsoon in India is between 100-120 days from early June to mid-September. It arrives at the southern tip of the Indian peninsula by the first week of June. Subsequently, it proceeds into two-the Arabian sea branch and the Bay of Bengal branch.

12. The Arabian sea branch reaches Mumbai by the 10^th of June and the Bay of Bengal branch arrives in Assam in the first week of June. Both these branches merge over the northwestern part of the Ganga plains.

13. The retreat of the monsoon begins in northwestern states of India by early September. By mid- October, it withdraws completely from the northern half of the peninsula. By early December, the monsoon has withdrawn from the rest of the country.

14. Four seasons can be identified in India-the cold-weather season, the hot weather season, the advancing monsoon and the retreating monsoon with some regional variations.

15. The cold-weather season begins from mid-November in northern India and stays till February. The hot-weather season remains from March to May. The rainy season starts from early June. By the beginning of October, the monsoon withdraws from the Northern plains.

16. December and January are the coldest in the northern part of India. The summer months experience rising temperature and falling air pressure in this part.

17. ‘Loo’ is a striking feature of the hot weather season. It blows over the north and northwestern India.

18. The retreat of monsoon is marked by clear skies and rise in temperature. While day temperature are high, nights are cool and pleasant.

19. Distribution of rainfall varies from place to place. It is highest in parts of western coast and northeastern India and lowest in western Rajasthan and adjoining parts of Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab.

20. Areas of high rainfall are liable to be affected by floods and areas of low rainfall are drought-prone.

21. The uncertainties of rain and uneven distribution are very much typical of the monsoons. The Indian landscape, its animal and plant life, its entire agriculture calender and the life of the people, revolve around this phenomenon.

Climate Class 9 CBSE Notes Important Terms

Weather: The state of atmosphere over an area of at any point of time.

Climate: The sum total of weather conditions and variation over a large area for a long period of time.

Monsoon: The seasonal prevailing wind in the region of South and South East Asia, blowing from the south-west between May and September and bringing rain.

Precipitation: Rain, snow, sleet or hail that falls to or condenses on the ground.

Loo: Strong, gusty, hot, dry winds blowing during the day over the north and north-western India.

Mahawat: The local name for the total amount of winter rainfall.

Relief: The highest and lowest elevation points in an area.