Category: CBSE Class 11

Here we are providing Class 11 Geography Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 2 Structure and Physiography. Important Questions for Class 11 Geography are the best resource for students which helps in class 11 board exams.

Important Questions for Class 11 Geography Chapter 2 Structure and Physiography

Structure and Physiography Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Where did the Tethys sea exist?
Answer:
Tethys was present there where the Himalayas and northern plains are present today.

Question 2.
What are the main physical divisions of India?
Answer:

1. Northern mountains,
2. The Great Plains,
3. Peninsular Plateau,
4. Coastal Plains and
5. Islands

Question 3.
What is the length and breadth of the Himalayas?
Answer:
Length is 2,500 km, breadth is 150 km to 400 km.

Question 4.
Name the four largest glaciers of India.
Answer:
Siachin, Hispar, Baii’o and Baltoro.

Question 5.
What do you mean by ‘duns’?
Answer:
These are the flat-floored valleys between Sivalik and Himachal.

Question 6.
What type of sand dunes are present in the ‘Thar desert’?
Answer:
Longitudinal, Barkhans, and Transverse type.

Question 7.
Name two passes of the Western Ghats.
Answer:
Thai Ghat and Bhor Ghat.

Question 8.
Name two rift valleys found in India.
Answer:
Narmada and Tapti.

Question 9.
Which plateau is found in the northeast of the peninsula?
Answer:
Shillong plateau.

Question 10.
What is the height of three peaks of Himalaya, having a height of more than 8,000 m.?
Answer:

1. Mount Everest 8,848 m.
2. Kanchenjunga 8,598 m.
3. Annapurna 8,078 m.

Question 11.
Name the highest peak of the Alps mountain.
Answer:
Mont Blanc.

Question 12.
What is the name of the outer Himalaya?
Answer:
Shivalik.

Question 13.
Name the highest plateau of India?
Answer:
Ladakh.

Question 14.
Name the largest physiographic division of India.
Answer:
Peninsular plateau.

Question 15.
Name the important passes in the Himalayas.
Answer:
Jelepa, Nathula, Chola, Zojila, Patkoi, Bomdila, Changla, Karakoram, etc.

Question 16.
Which rivers drain in the Punjab plains?
Answer:
Satluj and Beas drain in Punjab.

Question 17.
What is ‘Marusthal’?
Answer:
The land which is inhabited by the Gonds, Santhali, Oraons, and Bhils is known as Marshal.

Question 18.
Name two Saline lakes of Rajasthan.
Answer:
Sambhar and Didwana are two saline lakes of Rajasthan.

Question 19.
Name the two major island groups in India.
Answer:
The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.

Question 20.
Where is Barren island located in India?
Answer:
It is located on the Nicobar Islands.

Question 21.
Name the important peaks of Nicobar islands.
Answer:
Saddle peak, Mount Diavolo, Mount Koyob, and Mount Thuiller.

Question 22.
Name the submerged coastal plain.
Answer:
Dwarak is the submerged coastal plain.

Question 23.
Which part of the north-western plateau has a complex relief of ravines and gorges?
Answer:
Chambal, Bhind, and Morena have complex relief of ravines and gorges.

Question 24.
In which period were the Aravallies uplifted?
Answer:
Vindhyan period.

Question 25.
Name the eastern boundary of the Deccan plateau.
Answer:
Rajmahal Hills.

Structure and Physiography Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
“The peninsular plateaus and the Himalayas mountains are quite different from each other in respect of stratigraphy, geological structure, and physiography.” Comment.
Answer:
The northern mountains are young, weak, and flexible and have suffered from folding and deformation. The peninsula contains mostly residual mountains. Here, the river valley is shallow having low gradients. On the other hand, the Himalayas mountains are tectonic and rivers are torrential. The formation and development of the surface of the land like mountains, plateaus, and plains are called physiography.

Question 2.
What is Bhangar?
Answer:
The south of Terai is a belt consisting of old and new alluvial deposits known as Bhangar. These areas stand above the level of floodwater and the flood plains. This land is made up of clay pebbles and gravel. In Gangetic plains, these alluvial lands have been formed by the deposition of sandbars by the river.

Question 3.
What is Doab? Give few examples from India.
Answer:
The plain formed between two rivers is known as Doab. It separates two rivers but maintains its uniform character over the whole area. In Punjab, Doabs maintain the physical characteristics of the Punjab plain.

1. Best Jalandhar Doab
2. Bari Doab
3. Chaz Doab
4. Sind Sagar Doab

Question 4.
What is Karewas?. Where do they found?
Answer:
In the valley of Kashmir, the lake deposits comprise thick deposits of glacial clay and other materials embedded with maintaining, These deposits occur in the valleys within the Himalayan mountain where there was once glacial action and deposition of Morain.

Question 5.
State two important characteristics of the topographic complexity of the Himalayas.
Answer:
The young mountains of the Himalayas are formed by the internal horizontal earth movements. They have characteristic topographic. complexity.

1. The Greater Himalayas, the Lesser Himalayas, and Shivalik are three main parallel ranges.
2. These ranges have striking contrasts in their altitudes with snow-capped peaked, deep valleys, gorges, hanging valleys, ridges, etc.

Question 6.
Give three characteristics of the Himalayas, which indicate their youthful stage.
Answer:
There are many pieces of evidence collected by various geologists and archeologists to prove the youthfulness of the Himalayas. The follow ing evidence is given here :

1. The presence of Karewas.
2. In the sub-Himalayan region, fossils of post-tertiary mammals have been found which points to the upliftment during the Pleistocene times.
3. The archeologists have collected curious stone tools that represent the paleolithic times, an early man in the terraces of Himalayan rivers.

Question 7.
Give the main points of difference in Himalaya mountains with Indian plateau.
Answer:

Himalayan Mountains	Indian Plateau
(i) These are young new fold mountains.	(i) Indian plateau is an ancient crystalline land
(ii) These mountains have been formed by the folding of earth.	(ii) It has been formed as a horst.
(iii) The relief features of the young age of the Himalayas.	(iii) Plateau is old and well dissected.
(iv) There are parallel mountain ranges formed.	(iv) Rift valleys are formed.

Question 8. What is the difference between Eastern Himalaya and Western Himalaya?
Answer:

Eastern Himalaya	Western Himalaya
(i) Eastern Himalayas are extended from Sikkim to Assam between Tista and Brahmaputra river.	(i) Western Himalayas are extended between Indus and Kali.
(ii) Strong monsoon brings heavy rainfall.	(ii) Summers are warm and winter is vigorous cold.
(iii) Tropical wet evergreen forests grow.	(iii) Area is snow-covered.
(iv) Relief features are relatively lesser complex.	(iv) Alpine and temperate vegetation are found.

Question 9. Differentiate the Western Ghats and Vindhya Mountains.
Answer:

Western Ghats	Vindhya Mountains
(i) These are the extension of the south of the Malwa plateau.	(i) They are flank the Deccan lava plateau on the west.
(ii) It is running to the Narmada river.	(ii) They have altitude ranges from 900 to 1100 meters.
(iii) These are composed of sandstones, limestones, and shales.	(iii) They are generally forested with a variety of vegetation.

Question 10.
What are the characteristics of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands?
Answer:
The main characteristics are :

1. The Great Andaman is a collection of three islands, north, middle, and south.
2. These are a group of islands.
3. The south coast is very indented and has the highest hill ranges,
4. There are 19 islands in Nicobar islands.

Question 11.
In which part of India, faulting evidence are found?
Answer:
The faulting has taken place on the Deccan plateau. The trough faulting is found in the valleys of Godavari, Mahanadi, Damodar, Tapi, and Narmada valleys are rift valleys. Faulting evidence is found on the Malabar coast and the Markan coast.

Question 12.
What is horst?
Answer:
A horst is the uplift land between two parallel faults. The central mass of the land keeps standing while the adjoining areas are thrown down. It forms the shape of a block mountain or a horst. For example Vindhyan and Vosges.

Structure and Physiography Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Describe in short the major physical division of India.
Answer:
India can be divided into the following physical divisions :

1. The Great Mountains
2. The Great Northern Plain
3. The Great Peninsular
4. The Great Indian Desert Plateau

1. The Great Mountains – These are formed by the continuous stretch of the mountain from Kashmir to Assam. It acts as a wall. They arc the Karakoram and the Himalayas. The Karakoram mountains lie between the Pamir plateau and the Indus River in the west. Baltoro is the famous glacier of the Karakoram range. They are very high mountains. The second Himalayas mountain chain stretch from the Indus river in the west to the Brahmaputra river in the east. Indus and Brahmaputra divide them into the main Himalayas, the western Himalayas, and the eastern Himalayas. The Garo hills, the Khasi hills, the Jaintia hills, and the Mikir hills form the Eastern Himalayas. They fall in the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Assam, Mizoram, Tripura, and Meghalaya.

2. The Great Northern Plain – The great plains are composed of sediments deposited by rivers. They are quite extensive. The central and eastern parts of the plains have been formed by the tributaries of the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers. Half of the Great plain lies in Uttar Pradesh and half in the state of Bihar.

3. The Great Peninsular Plateau – The peninsular plateau forms the largest physiographic division facing towards the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. It stretches from the Satpura range (north) to Kanyakumari (south) and from the Sahyadri (Western Ghats) to Rajmahal hills in the east. It is triangular in shape having four physiographic divisions: the Western Ghats, the Deccan Plateau, the Eastern Ghats, and Eastern Plateau.

4. The Greatest Indian Desert – It lies to the west of the Aravali ranges in Rajasthan. This is the region of moving sand and low rainfall, known as Marusthali. It was drained by the Saraswati, Drisadvati, and Satluj rivers. But today Llini is the only river. There are numerous salt lakes of which Sambhar is the largest.

5. Coastal Plains: The peninsular plateaus are bordered on the east and the west by the coastal plains. There are two well-known peninsulas, Kathiawar and Kachchh, on the west coast and an extensive plain of Gujarat. The east coast has a number of deltas. The west coast has no delta.

6. Island Groups – Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal have a number of islands. They are called Lakshadweep, Andaman, and Nicobar islands. Andaman and Nicobar islands are the elevated portions of submarine mountains while the Lakshadweep Islands are built of coral deposits.

Question 2.
Write a short note on the saline lakes of Rajasthan.
Answer:
Rajasthan lies in the desert area to the west of the Aravali hills. This region has very low rainfall. The groundwater in this region is impregnated with salt, therefore various saline lakes are found. Out of these, there are two well-known saline lakes on the eastern edge of the Thar Desert. They are known as Sambhar end the Didwana. Both of these are the sources of common salts. The Sambhar is an example of a boson. Bolson is an extensive flat depression surrounded by hills in which the drainage is centripetal. The smaller lakes with flat floors are undrained basins in which water collects after rains and evaporates quickly are called Playas. The Didwana lake is a playa.

There are four theories about the origin of these salt lakes :

1. The salt comes from the underlying beds.
2. The lakes are the relics of the receding sea.
3. The salt is transported from Kachchh by the wind.
4. The salt is obtained from the surrounding rocks.

Question 3.
Describe in short, how the Himalayas were formed?
Answer:
The Himalayas have been formed due to folding by different mountain building movements. The major areas of the Himalayas have been formed by folding while minor has been formed as a result of weathering and other agents of changes. It had been uplifted from the Great Geosyncline known as Tethys sea in the folded form. These uplifted ranges had been denuded by the weathering and the other agents such as rivers and glaciers. These agents of changes carved the physical features i.e. gorges, U-shaped valleys, hanging valleys, and ridges. The Indus gorge is formed as a result of erosion and weathering.

There are many U-shaped and hanging valleys which are the result of the erosional work of glaciers and ice. The complexity of the Himalayas is achieved by the various process of weathering and the cycle of erosion. The fertile valley of Kashmir represents the depositional work of the agents of change. Ganga, Indus, and their tributaries rise from the Himalayas. They are busy carving the minor physical features. The Himalayas peaks are snow-covered. They represent the work done by earth movements.

Question 4.
What is ‘KARE WAS’? Where are they found? Describe in short
Answer:
Kare was are the thick deposits of glacial clay and other materials embedded with moraine. The Kashmir Himalayas are famous for Karewas formations which are useful for the cultivation of Zafran, which is a local variety of saffron. Kashmir or the north-western Himalayas comprise a series of ranges such as the Karakoram, the Ladakh, the Zaskar, and the Pir-Punjab. The north-eastern part of the Kashmir Himalayas is a cold desert that lies between the Greater Himalayas and the Karakoram ranges. Between the Great Himalayas and the Pir- Punjab lies the famous valley of Kashmir and Dal Lake, important glaciers Baltoro and Siachin are also found here. Kare was formed in the valleys within the Himalayan mountain where there was once glacial action and deposition of Morain.

Question 5.
Describe the two island groups of India.
Answer:
There are two major island groups in India. One in the Bay of Bengal and the other in the Arabian Sea. The Bay of Bengal groups of islands consists of 572 islands approximately. These are situated between 6°N to 14°N and 92°E to 94°E. Richie’s archipelago and Labyrinth are the two principal groups of islands.

The entire group of islands is divided into two categories:
Andaman (north) and Nicobar (south). They are separated by a water body called 10° Channel. Some smaller islands are volcanic in origin. A barren island the only active volcano in India is situated in the Nicobar Islands. Some important peaks of this island are saddle peak, Mount Diavolo, Mount Koyob, and Mount Thuiller. The coastal line has beautiful beaches. These islands receive conventional rainfall and have an equatorial type of vegetation.

Lakshadweep islands lie in the Arabian Sea. They are scattered between 8°N to 12°N and 71 °E to 74°E longitude. These are located at a distance of 280 km to 480 km from the Kerala coast. The entire island group is built of coral deposits. They are approximately 36, out of which 11 are inhabited. Minicoy is the largest island. The entire group of islands is broadly divided by 11° Channel, north of which is Amini Island and south is Canannore Island. The Islands of this archipelago have storm beaches having pebbles, shingles, cobbles, and boulders on the eastern seaboard.

Here we are providing Class 11 Geography Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 1 India: Location. Important Questions for Class 11 Geography are the best resource for students which helps in class 11 board exams.

Important Questions for Class 11 Geography Chapter 1 India: Location

India: Location Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What is the location of India?
Answer:
India’s location is in between 8°4′ and 37°6’N latitudes (Mainland) and 68°7’ and 97°25’E longitudes.

Question 2.
Why is there the sun almost overhead all the year-round at Kanyakumari and the southernmost tip of the great Nicobar island?
Answer:
Because of their proximity of the equator.

Question 3.
What is the Standard Meridian of India?
Answer:
82°30′ East.

Question 4.
Name the two parts of the Northern portion of the Indian ocean which are divided by the Indian peninsula?
Answer:

1. Arabian sea,
2. The Bay of Bengal.

Question 5.
How long is India’s land frontiers?
Answer:
15,200 km.

Question 6.
Name the island groups which are a part and parcel of the Indian Union?
Answer:

1. The Lakshadweep Island,
2. The Andaman and Nicobar Island.

Question 7.
Name the countries which have common boundaries with India?
Answer:

1. Afghanistan,
2. Pakistan,
3. Nepal,
4. Bhutan,
5. Myanmar,
6. Bangladesh,
7. China.

Question 8.
Who is the closest neighbour of India in the south?
Answer:
Sri Lanka (separated from India by the Palk strait).

Question 9.
How large is our country in the world?
Answer:
India is the 7th largest country in the world.

Question 10.
What are the main physical divisions of India?
Answer:

1. The great mountains of the North.
2. The great plains of Northern India.
3. The great plateau of peninsular India.

Question 11.
Name the highest mountain peak of peninsular India.
Answer:
Anaimudi in Kerala.

Question 12.
Name the longest river in the south?
Answer:
The Godavari.

Question 13.
Which rivers size beyond the Himalayas?
Answer:

1. The Indus,
2. The Brahmaputra.

Question 14.
What is the total area of India?
Answer:
The total area of India is about 32,87,263 sq. km.

Question 15.
Which line of the latitude passes through the centre of India?
Answer:
Tropic of Cancer (passes through the centre of India).

Question 16.
What is the length of the coastal line of India?
Answer:
6,100 km.

Question 17.
Which ocean route links India with Europe?
Answer:
Suez canal.

Question 18.
What is the speciality of -India?
Answer:
Unity in diversity.

Question 19.
Name the southern of most point of the Indian mainland.
Answer:
Kanyakumari.

Question 20.
Name the northern of most point of India?
Answer:
Indira point.

India: Location Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What are two geographical features which have played a great unifying role in strengthening Indian people?
Answer:
The two features are:

1. The great mountainous wall of Himalayas on the north,
2. The peninsular part of India, the Indian Ocean, the Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal on the south.

These are the two geographical features acted as a physical barrier and kept Indian culture in a unified nature.

Question 2.
What is the position of India in the world in terms of size, area and population?
Answer:
India is the 7th largest country in the world having an area of 32,87,263 PQ. km. It is the second-largest country in population. The population of India is 103,00,00,000 next to China. India has 2% of the total area of the world while the population is 16% of the world.

Question 3.
Why India (subcontinent) show a distinct geography? Give reason in support of your answer.
Answer:
The Indian subcontinent has considered a distinct geographical unit. Because it is separated from the rest of the Asia continent by Hindukush in the north-west and in the north by Himalayan ranges. On the southern side, it is isolated by the Indian ocean from the rest of the world.

It has a distinct type of climate which is not found beyond the Himalayas.

It shows unity in diversity which is quite unique.

Question 4.
What do you mean by MacMohan line? What does it signify?
Answer:
The MacMohan line is a dividing line between India and China realms. Between India and China, the crest of Himalayas stand. It separates China and India. This crest of high Himalayas is known as the MacMohan line. It is to the East of Bhutan.

Question 5.
There is a difference of two hours in local time between the easternmost part and the westernmost part. Give reason.
Answer:
The difference in local time between the easternmost part and the westernmost part is for two hours. Because there is a longitudinal distance of 30° longitudes. This distance makes a difference of 2 hours. Hence, when it is 6 a.m. in Arunachal Pradesh (eastern part) the local time at Saurashtra (western part) is supposed to be behind 2 hours as compared to Arunachal Pradesh. Therefore, it is correct that when the sun has already risen in Arunachal Pradesh, it is still night in Saurashtra.

Question 6.
What is the importance of India in the eastern world? Describe in short.
Answer:
India has great importance in the eastern world. It lies between West Asia and East Asia, The trans-oceanic routes connecting Africa, Europe, West Asia and South-east Asian countries pass through India. The sea plays an important role in India’s relations with the external world. The Indian and Chinese cultures meet in south-east Asia and their local culture reflected in terms like Indo-China.

Question 7.
Which countries share their international boundaries with India?
Answer:
The long international boundary of India is shared in the East by Bangladesh (4,096 km), on the north by China (3,917 km), Afghanistan (80 km) and on the north-west by Pakistan (3,310 km). It also has borders with Nepal (1,752 km), Myanmar (1,458 km) and with Bhutan (587 km) India has a land frontier of about 15,200 km. and coastline of 6,100 km.

Question 8.
Write a short note on the peninsular river system in India.
Answer:
The peninsular river system is divided into two:
(a) Rivers flowing into the Arabian sea.
(b) Rivers flowing in the Bay of Bengal

Rivers flowing into the Arabian sea are Narmada and Tapi.’ They originate from Deccan plateau and flow westwards into the Arabian sea. These rivers form estuaries and not delta.

Rivers flowing into the Bay of Bengal are Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri. These rivers form deltas. Most of these peninsular rivers flow rapidly and they are ideal for generating hydel power.

Question 9.
Distinguish between Latitudes and Longitudes.
Answer:

Latitudes	Longitudes
1. The imaginary lines running east-west are known as parallels of latitudes.	1. The vertical lines running north-south joining two poles are called meridians of longitude.
2. These are circular and make a complete circle.	2. They are halves of the great circle.
3. They run parallel to each other.	3. They all meet at the poles.
4. All are similar in size.	4. All are not similar in size.

Question 10.
What is the difference between local time and standard time?
Answer:
Local time of a place is the time of its meridian. All places on a meridian have same local time. Each place has its own local time. The place in the east is ahead of the west in time.

Standard time is the time of central meridian of an area. All places have a uniform time. It has no relation with the moon or height of the sun. There is no change in time. So it is known as standard time.

Question 11.
What is meant by local time?
Answer:
The local time of a place is the time of its meridian. The old method of determining the time was to adjust the clock at noon when the sun would cross the local meridian and shadows would be at their shortest. Time calculated by the position of the sun at noon at a given place is called local time.

Question 12.
What do you mean by standard time?
Answer:
It is the standard time of central meridian of an area. To maintain the uniformity of time as far as possible, within the territorial limits of a country, the time at central meridian of the country is taken as the standard meridian and its local time is taken as the standard time for the whole country. The standard meridian is selected in such a manner that it is divisible by 15° or by 7°30′. The difference between its standard time and Greenwich mean time may be expressed as multiples of an hour.

India: Location Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
What is a subcontinent? India is a subcontinent. Prove it.
Answer:
India has a well-knit independent geographical unit. A subcontinent is a vast independent geographical unit. India is separated from the main continent. It is a vast country that produces diversity in economic, social and cultural conditions.

It is a land of towering mountains, beautiful valleys, magnificent culture and birthplace of numerous religious faiths. Geographically it stretches from the Himalayas in the north to the Indian Ocean in the south, but in terms of its cultural, economic, political influences, it has an emphatic presence in the south and southeast Asia and at the international level. India is the only land with a vast diverse geographic culture which is woven by the strong bond of nationhood and belongingness. India is described as a subcontinent. Other countries that are included are Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. Many factors which prove that India is a subcontinent are:

1. Natural frontiers of India.
2. India is surrounded by the major realness of Asia on all sides. The% great mountain wall gives it an independent shape.
3. India is the 7th largest country in the world in area.
4. India is a land of rivers but it has cultural unity behind this diversity.
5. Monsoon climate determines the life of people and the economic development of the country. It givei^a a distinct character of the subcontinent to this landmass.

Question 2.
Explain the term unity in diversity.
Answer:
In India, many diversities are found but India exhibits a high degree of unity in diversity. The factors which are responsible for this unique feature of the Indian polity are much large geographical spread of the subcontinent provides fertile grounds for germination and blossoming of regional diversities in the social setup. Differentiation in the physical landscape has contributed to the emergence of different ways and pattern of human interaction with nature. People led to the concentration of diverse elements in different regions.

The factors which are responsible for the unity of social character in the country are:

1. Monsoonal season.
2. The horizontal spread of cultural and socio-economic attributes from different parts of the country.

The strong bond generated by nationhood and belongingness. The development of regional linkages and emergence of a regional home market during the British rule in India.

Question 3.
How the central position of India is beneficial to us? Explain it.
Answer:
Geographically India occupies a central position in the Asia continent.

This position is beneficial to us in many ways:

1. India is located on the Eastern hemisphere, Europe and Eastern part of America are at equal distance from India.
2. The tropic of cancer passes through the centre of India. So that India is a tropical country.
3. India has a long coastline which provides many deep and natural harbours.
4. Indian ocean provides a favourable route for international trade.
5. The natural boundaries are favourably located from a different point of view.
6. Indian ocean is the origin of monsoons.
7. The chain of towering Himalayas acts as a climatic barrier. It protects northern India from polar cold winds and forces the monsoon to give rainfall.

Question 4.
What are the three major physical divisions of India? Describe one of them in detail:
(i) The great mountain of north.
Answer:
The great mountains of the north: This physical part lie between the great mountains of the north and the peninsular plateau. It has been built by the deposition of the sediments brought by the rivers. It is alluvial and extremely level. It extends from east to west, about 2,500 km! in length.

(ii) The great plains.
Answer:
The plains consist of the two river basins – Indus and the Ganga- Brahmaputra basins. The Indus and its tributaries The Jhelum, The Chenab, The Ravi, The Beas and the Sutlej flow into The Arabian sea through Pakistan.

(iii) The great plateau Of peninsular India.
Answer:
The Ganga, Brahmaputra and their tributaries flow into the Bay of Bengal. Indus and Brahmaputra originated beyond the Himalayas.

The entire plain region is very fertile and the major occupation of the people is agriculture. A large number of industries come up in the region. This region has a dense network of transport. This region is densely populated.

Question 5.
Describe the changing pattern of human activities in India.
Answer:
The human activities in India have developed in stages. Because many racial stocks came to India at different periods of history and they influence the human activities in India. They had developed various human activities from food gathering to the modem industries. This oldness and continuity of changing human activities of cultural and civilisation areas:
(a) The Negritos represented the food gatherer of the stone age. They had led their life completely on nature. They are still surviving in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
(b) The Dravidian presented the farmer. They came from the Mediterranean lands. They started agriculture and led a settled life. They tilled their land with ordinary instruments and produced various crops. They loved their motherland.
(c) The Aryans represented the artisans and handcraftsman. They started cottage industries. They were more civilised people and knew the art of iron smelting. They made canals from the rivers. They developed cities on the lands of Ganga and Yamuna. They prepared the multicoloured cloth from the silk-threads.

Here we are providing Class 11 History Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 3 An Empire Across Three Continents. Class 11 History Important Questions with Answers are the best resource for students which helps in class 11 board exams.

Class 11 History Chapter 3 Important Extra Questions An Empire Across Three Continents

An Empire Across Three Continents Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Write the continental expansion of the Roman empire.
Answer:
This empire was extended to territories of Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia i.e. Islamic countries.

Question 2.
What are the sources worth reckoning about Roman and Iranian empires?
Answer:
These are:

1. Textual sources including accounts of contemporary historians,
2. Documentary sources including inscriptions and papyri, and
3. Material remains including the things discovered by archaeologists through excavation and field surveys.

Question 3.
Which sea was called the heart of the Roman empire?
Answer:
It was the Mediterranean sea because the Roman empire was at its north and south and it had a center or middle location.

Question 4.
Mention the area controlled by Iran.
Answer:
It was extended from south to Caspian sea down to eastern Arabia and larger parts of Afghanistan.

Question 5.
Mention the time-line for early Europe and the late empire in the context of the Roman empire.
Answer:
The whole period of the third century is early Europe and the period thereafter is late Europe.

Question 6.
What do you understand by the term Princeps?
Answer:
It was a Latin term meaning leading citizen i.e.’ the first citizen of the empire or the emperor.

Question 7.
What was the nature of the republic during the regime of Augustus? i.e. 27  B.C.E.
Answer:
It was actually, an aristocracy system of Government in which the senate was the most powerful. The senate was a body constituted by wealthy families popularly known as nobility.

Question 8.
What was seen specifically in the Roman empire?
Answer:
It was its diverse culture yet bound together by a common system of government. Briefly, it can be stated that there was unity in diversity in terms of the diverse culture of people.

Question 9.
What was the language of the upper class in the Roman empire?
Answer:
It was the Greek language.

Question 10.
What was the specific or chief organ of government in the Roman empire?
Answer:
It was the army. As the available records of contemporary history state, there was a vast army consisting of six lakhs soldiers in the fourth century. This organ of government had the power to determine the fate of emperors.

Question 11.
What was the system of succession to the throne in the so-called republic of the Roman empire?
Answer:
It was based on family descent either natural or adopted e.g. Tiberius was the adopted son of Augustus.

Question 12.
What do you understand by gender in connection with Roman society?
Answer:
The term ‘gender’ incorporates in its scope; the family structure and other similar institutions of society in connection with the Roman empire.

Question 13.
What was the term “literary” in connection with the Roman empire?
Answer:
It is referred to as casual literacy among communities of the Roman empire due to the sudden befall of calamities like the volcano explosion of 79 C.E. in Pompeii.

Question 14.
What meaning the term culture reflects on the culture of people during the Roman empire existed from the first to third half-century?
Answer:
It is meant by and implied to diverse nature of society learned about seven different languages including Greek and Latin both accepted as administrative languages or it may be stated that these languages patronized by the then rulers.

Question 15.
What do you understand by pluralism in religion?
Answer:
It implies general religions and cults simultaneously, were running that period in parallel.

Question 16.
What was an effective tool for ruling so diverse empires?
Answer:
It was the decentralization of powers among Princep, the Senate, and the Army and coordination of their efforts/activities into one i.e. Principate or so-called republic.

Question 17.
What reason would you imagine in the womb of events that resulted in mutiny?
Answer:
The senate can be attributed to failed that period during which soldier wars had taken place.

Question 18.
What was the manner of recruitment of soldiers in the Roman empire and Iranian empire?
Answer:
The soldiers were given privileges and perks. They were duly recruited as modern and paid. Their service tenure was also fixed (i.e. 25 years service).

However, the manner of recruitment under the Iranian army was that of coercive as military service was made necessary for every citizen who had attained the age of eighteen years and compelled to serve at least at his being of forty-three. It was termed a conscripted army by the historians of that time.

Question 19.
Name the historians of the Roman empire.
Answer:
These were-Cassius Dio, Tacitus, Columella, Pliny the Elder (author of Natural History), and Olympiodrous of Thebes.

Question 20.
How did the term “Draconian” is added to the dictionary?
Answer:
The addition of this word to the dictionary is related to the harsh behavior of the ruler called Draco in the Greek language. It is worthwhile to quote here that he had punished with a death sentence even for petty crimes. Generally, draconian means harsh or inhuman mostly in the treatment of others.

Question 21.
What do you understand by mosaic?
Answer:
It was a kind of drawing on wall-pictures or patterns with glass and stones as material e.g. as in Edessa found by archaeologists.

Question 22.
What is a special characteristic of mosaic at Edessa?
Answer:
It has been known through an inscription found that wife of king Edgar and her family had been depicted in the mosaic of that palace.

Question 23.
For what the Pompeii is famous?
Answer:
The archaeologists have found a wine merchant’s dining room pari-passu to modem pub where mystical animals were drawn on the walls.

Question 24.
What are graffitis?
Answer:
These were the funniest writings on walls in Pompeii.

Question 25.
What do you mean by the term funniest in connection with graffitis?
Answer:
It means a thing that has no productive values other than keeping people in mirth or ecstasy.

Question 26.
Write the names of deities worshipped by people under the Roman empire?
Answer:
These were known as Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, and Mars including several Greek and Eastern deities.

Question 27.
What do you understand by the term monolith?
Answer:
A society or culture absolutely orthodox and of rigid communities/traditions.

Question 28.
Who was addressed Laity in the Roman empire?
Answer:
Those were the ordinary members of a religious community below priests or clergy who had official positions within the community.

Question 29.
What were Colosseums?
Answer:
These were the public places or areas where the trained people (gladiators) fight wild beasts and finally, knock them down. The excellent muscle power developed by them and the skill as well, was observed by the populace gathered there, on special occasions and thus, they entertained.

Question 30.
How did the western Roman empire suffer?
Answer:
As the administration was conducted through provincial units complied with certain changes adopted by the society, kingdoms independent by the German groups from the north i.e. Goths, Vandals, Lombards were established. It resulted in a decline in fragments of the Roman empire. This period was specifically described as kingdoms of the post-Roman period.

Question 31.
What had happened to the eastern part of the Roman empire?
Answer:
Despite the plague affected the Mediterranean in the 540 C.E., this part of the empire witnessed general prosperity and expansion till the sixth century.

Question 32.
What do you understand by Christianisation?
Answer:
It was the process by which Christianity spread among different groups of the population and became the dominant religion.

Question 33.
What is the condition of Egypt during the period of the sixth century under Justinian, the ruler of the Roman empire?
Answer:
It was a densely settled part of the empire in the fifth and sixth centuries than it would be even in the twentieth-century i.e. in the modern period. Income from taxes from those regions was worked out over 2.5 million solidi (gold coin) per year. It was equivalent to 35,000 pounds of gold.

Question 34.
Who was destroyed by the Arabs between the period around 511 to 774 C.E.?
Answer:
These were the Visigoths of Spain, Franks of Gaul, and Lombards in Italy.

Question 35.
What different kind of world did come in the offing when Arabs had conquered the western kingdoms?
Answer:
It was known as the Medieval period of history.

Question 36.
Where was the second capital of the Roman Empire established?
Answer:
It was established by Constantine in 313 C.E. at the site of modern Istambul in Turkey previously called Byzantium but on the name of the emperor, it was called Constantinople.

Question 37.
How did the Roman empire get economic stability?
Answer:
The emperor, Constantine had introduced a new denomination, the solidus (a gold coin weighing 4Vi grams). It had an abundant supply from the regions in North Africa. On this count, we can say that the empire would have got stability.

Question 38.
What was the financial condition of the senate members in the Roman empire?
Answer:
The members of the senate were the wealthiest people. Each of them owned a medium-city-like area, the comforts, and facilities as a medium-sized city.

Question 39.
Who was the emperor of the Roman empire during 284-305 C.E. and what changes did he bring in the realm?
Answer:
He was Diocletian. He fortified the frontiers, reorganized provincial boundaries, and separated military frontiers and those of the civilians. Thus, military commanders (duces) became more powerful. He abandoned territories with little strategic and economic importance.

Question 40.
Why is Constantine remembered so in the Roman empire?
Answer:

1. He introduced solidus (the gold coin) which outlasted the Roman empire itself.
2. Oil presses and glass pictures (screw presses and watermills) were established amply under his rule.
3. Invested more in the promotion of cottage industries in villages.
4. Followed by reinforced changes that were brought by his predecessor Diocletian in administration.

An Empire Across Three Continents Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
The text has referred to three writers whose work is used to say something about how the Romans had treated their workers. Can you identify them? Record the section for yourself and describe any two methods the Romans used to control labor.
Answer:
Yes, those three writers were-Tacitus, Columella, and Pliny the Elder.

Tacitus writes on labor controlling networks. He states the slaves were misbehaved and tortured to the extent, they sometimes committed the murder of their owners. He has written that a City Perfect (as of today’s Mayor or Chief Councillor) was murdered by one of his slaves which ultimately, resulted in riots, so uncontrolled as the slaves besieged the senate-house. However, the convict was executed. It shows the senators did not take notice of so grave a situation. No laws reducing punishment were passed particularly, made for the slaves.

The slaves were sometimes grouped into gangs or smaller teams and sternly supervised. As per Columella, another historian of that period, most groups were made in each group of ten slaves. The Natural History writer, Pliny who was also Elder (councilor) to administration, states that slaves were chained together by their feet so that they could save the expenditure incurred on supervision and a permanent measure to keep them busy with the work so assigned to them. He further states, a seal was put upon the workmen’s apparel and they had to wear a mark or a net with a close mesh on their heads.

Agricultural labor was also in a pathetic state and the same conditions prevailed when we talk of workers in factories and workshops. A law was passed in 398 C.E. allowing branding upon the body of laborers/ workmen so that they would be recognized if and when they run away and try to hide. Private employers began doing contracts in term of debts when they would provide the laborers/workers at the time of joining for a period of 25 years ahead and thus, debt bondage oppressed their instincts to the extent, they tolerated every draconian treatment and had surrounded them in servitude although they were free.

Question 2.
It is told that some specific events and circumstances add new words to the vocabulary. Can you state the event that added the term Draconian? Please, explain.
Answer:
Yes, “Draconian” a specific term got popularity owing to Draco, the Greek lawmaker in the Roman empire. He, during the early sixth century B.C.E., had recommended a law in 398 C.E., which referred to workers being branded so they could be recognized if and when they run away and try to hide.

It was gross inhuman treatment with the laborers i.e. the main active and sensitive part of the project/ work. Hence, the pains inflicted upon laborers by branding so severe and harsh to mankind would have accumulated and said law, we see added to the dictionary since then for all kinds of rules, regulations, decrees, orders, implications, and ordinances equally implied.

Question 3.
What were Frankincense and its origin?
Answer:
It was an aromatic resin used in perfumes. It was extracted by the process of piercing the bark of Boswellia trees. The Arabian peninsula was suitable for the natural growth of those trees in forest areas there.

Question 4.
Describe the living standard of Aristocrat’s (nobles) during the Roman empire.
Answer:
These were those rich people called members to the senate in government like councilors of modem period. They owned a medium city like big area with all affluent and appurtenance facilities and ease. Hippodromes, fora, temples, fountains, and different kinds of baths were essential components to their possession.

Every councilor had an income of 4,000 pounds of gold per annum from their properties not including grain, rice, and other produce which, if sold, would have exchanged for at least 1500 pounds. The second class people came into being when Gallienus imposed a prohibition on the recruitment of senators into the army in order to prevent control of the empire from falling into their hands. Their income was one thousand or fifteen hundred pounds of gold per year. It has been mentioned by Olympiodorus, the historian of that period.

Question 5.
What period, you would say or the contemporary historian had stated as “Late Antiquity”, why would have this phrase used for, explain.
Answer:
It was the period around the fourth to seventh centuries. The term “antiquity” is archaeological and denotes the period around the modern and the past i.e. medieval period. Several natural and economic changes were witnessed by this period about that of three centuries. Constantine and Diocletian were the emperors of that period. It was Diocletian who inserted division of power in army and civilians including senators. He curtailed the territories less productive and minimal importance in view of defense i.e. strategy.

Constantine on his part had reinforced the division of power made by his predecessor viz. Diocletian and is remembered for circulation of gold coin solidus weighing 4.5 grams. This measure brought economic stability. the empire as there was no dearth of supply from North Africa. He established his second capital at Byzantium (Istambul in Turkey at present) and named I Constantinople (i.e. the palace of the emperor Constantine). Cotta industries got patronage of these two rulers and factories mainly h of oil presses and glass factories, was established.

Question 6.
Who was Nero and why is he famous even today?
Answer:
Nero was a Roman citizen known to the Greek language and one of the extremists among the slaves/workers/workmen coerced and tortured badly by their factory owners, land-owners, and senators. He led the motion violently when a slave convicted as the murderer of Lucius Pedanius Secundus was being taken to execute under the order of the senate. He rebuked the population for watching deafly; the injustice, so severe practiced on the slaves. The crowd was ready to attack senators and the jailor got blows of stones and was tortured in their hands. This was the first mass agitation led by Nero.

Question 7.
Who were plebs Sordida? Do you see they resemble modem film stars and sportsmen? How?
Answer:
In context to the Roman empire, plebs Sordida were the unkempt lower class people but addicted to circus and theatre display including slaves. Their activities were confined to observe the moods of their owners mostly senators and keep them at mirth. There were no laws preventing their execution on the displeasure of their owners. Thus, that section of society was of the least value and even today, these activities are called pastimes i.e. merely for recreation at leisure and these people are like soothsayers in Shakespearean plays.

The theatrical quality, however, has preferred by the public to the extent, one may see one or more lessons on text-books recommended by NCERT by virtue of their keen observation of society and its instincts soaked into the ocean of western culture and cunning manners. Travesty of words and dialogues, the electronic media has technically sorted and pseudo trends are being implanted into human minds.

The logic for such are invincible in globalization and trying to create a universal soul that would make humanity universal. We are thus, soon, going to be universal-men once described by our culture as-“Ayam Nijah Paroveti Ganana Laghuchetsam, Udara Caritanamatu Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam.” No doubt, it is a renaissance but just reverses the cycle of the renaissance that had begun since thirteenth century C.E. from Italy.

Question 8.
What had resulted when debt-bondage did the attack on the labor instincts?
Answer:
The workmen/laborers/coolies/workers/servants etc. suffered when draconian tricks were practiced on them severely. It gradually hammered nails in their head and heart of them, it gave birth to rebellion in Judaea against Roman domination e.g. great Jewish revolt of 66 C.E.’The revolutionaries destroyed the money lenders’ bonds to won popular support.

Question 9.
Who was the exception of labor coercion?
Answer:
Despite labor coercion to a severe degree by virtue of draconian laws, the emperor Anastasius of the late fifth century offered high wages in course of the frontier city of Dara constructed by him. It is pertinent to mention that-that the entire city was built by workers in less than three weeks’ time. We also came to know through Papyri that widespread wage-labor had become inputs of the Mediterranean by the sixth century especially, in the east.

Question 10.
Describe some less-advanced states under the Roman empire.
Answer:
Numidia (modem Algeria) witnessed transhumance during the Roman empire. There were pastoral and semi-nomadic communities. Transhumance was the regular animal movement of the herdsmen between the higher mountain regions and low lying ground in search of pasture for sheep and other flocks. They had oven-shaped huts (Papalia) with them, all portable. In Spain, the villages called Costella was inhabited by the Celtic speaking peasantry. However, with the expansion of Roman estates in North Africa, the pastures of these communities were drastically reduced and their movements more tightly regulated.

Question 11.
Discuss the sophistication trends in the Roman economy.
Answer:
Economic Life under the Roman empire was most advanced. Diversified applications of water power around the Mediterranean, development of water-powered milling technology, the use of hydraulic mining techniques in the Spanish gold and silver mines and gigantic industrial scale, well organized commercial and banking networks, and widespread use of gold coins indicate prima facie the sophisticated economy under the Roman empire.

Question 12.
Who were equities and what was their role in the Roman empire?
Answer:
The term equities denote the horse-rider, hence, it refers to knights who were the second most powerful and wealthy group after senators viz. this group represents the army, the third organ of the government. They were families whose property qualified them to serve in the cavalry. Mostly, people of this group were landowners and some others were ship-owners, traders, and bankers, viz. people were involved in business activities.

Question 13.
Discuss the traditional religious culture of Greek and Roman under the Roman empire.
Answer:
Both Greek and Roman were poly-theist. There were numerous cults in which gods like Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, and Mars and several Greek and eastern deities worshipped in thousands of temples, shrines, and sanctuaries throughout the empire. The above were mainly Roman/Italian gods. Polytheists had no common name or label to describe themselves. Judaism was diverse within the Jewish communities of late antiquity. Bishops were orthodox type and used to criticize the common Christians for beliefs and practices they did thereupon. They made a very rigid1 set of beliefs and practices.

Question 14.
Describe the condition of the middle class under the Roman empire.
Answer:
The middle class was consisting of government servants in the bureaucracy and soldiers as also prosperous merchants and farmers in the eastern provinces. The middle class has been described as clients to the great senatorial houses.

Question 15.
Who were humiliates?
Answer:
Humilores was the term incorporating jointly all lower classes of the Roman society. They conferred a rural labor force of which many were permanently employed on the large, estates, workers in industrial and mining departments, migrant workers for the grain and olive harvests, and building industry i.e. construction of houses, public-houses including palaces. Self-employed artisans were better fed than wage laborers (in big cities) including slaves.

Question 16.
Discuss the Roman bureaucracy during early fifth-century C.E.
Answer:
It was an affluent group because it drew the bulk of its salary in gold and invested much of this in buying up assets like land. There was corruption in the judicial and administration of military supplies. Bureaucrats were extorting animals and provincial governors were corrupt. As historians and other members of the intelligentsia condemned these practices, the government passed time to time several legislations to curb the corrupt practices. Olympiodoriis, the historian of that period has mentioned that a number of laws were passed in order to abolish corrupt practices. The government being autocratic responded to protest with violence in the cities of the East.

The law passed by the fourth century C.E. imposed restrictions on the arbitrary tendencies of the emperor as it provided protection to civil rights. For an instance, Ambrose, the powerful Bishop protested sternly against the repressive measures they practiced on the civilian population.

Question 17.
How independent were women in the Roman world? Compare the situation of the Roman family with the family in India today.
Answer:
Women were independent the most in the Roman empire with the right to get a share in their father’s property and became independent property owners on her father’s death. The Dowry system was also prevalent in that society. Thus, women were two ways benefited. We can state that married couples were not one financial entity but two, and the wife enjoyed complete legal independence. She was free to get a divorce from her husband only through the notice of intent to dissolve the marriage. The marriageable age for males was their late twenties or early thirties while it was late teens or early twenties for the females. It means boys were eligible to marriage after twenty-five while it was eighteen or nineteen for the girls.

Thus, a large gap between husband and wife and would have encouraged a certain inequality. Mostly arranged marriages were solemnized but women were often subjected to domination by their husbands. Augustine, the bishop of the North African city of Hippo writes that his mother was regularly beaten by his father and that most other wives in that small town had similar bruises to show. Father had substantial legal control over their children viz. they were free to kill their unwanted children e.g. such children would be left to die by leaving them out in the cold.

Indian Succession (Reforms) Act, 2005 has also provided women in India, right to get a share in their fathers’ properties equal to their siblings. Divorce cases are also piling up at the courts of this country. Women have been given reservations on 33% of the assembly and parliament seats including at the level of local self-government viz. village, block, and district levels (Panchayati Raj).

An Empire Across Three Continents Important Extra Questions Long Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Outline the Roman administration, the structure of society, Gender, literacy, culture, and economic expansion under the Roman empire.
Answer:
We would like to answer this question under the following sub-heads:
(a) Administration-It was an aristocracy form of government. The administration was done through provinces under a single emperor. Organs of the Roman government were the emperor, the senate (wealthy families mostly landowners), and the army (equities consisting of ship owners, bankers, traders, and landowners). These were knights and categorized under middle class) viz. three organs. Tacitus, the contemporary writer says that the middle class was a client to the great senatorial houses. The fourth organ was that of Humiliores (i.e. lower class). It was consisting of plebs Sordida addicted to the circus and theatrical displays and finally, the slaves.

Early administration was called Principate alias aristocracy in which emperor was Princep (leading citizen) not the absolute ruler but actually, such was only a facade as it was the emperor who had exercised the real power of administration. Senate was powerful till it was a republic. Senate was consisting of the wealthiest families of Roman and later, Italian descent, mainly landowners. Senators only had written the Roman histories. There were also emperors who behaved with suspicion or brutality and violence against the senatorial class but even after efforts made skilfully, this class could not bring back the days of the republic i.e.; the period when it had absolute powers to rule. Urban centers were developed and the large chunk coffer constituted income from taxation on provinces, urban centers, and the villages.

(b) Gender-It was witnessed that women were given independent legal rights to the effect that they were made heir to the property of their natal family, entitled to own and manage the property at their will, and independent property owner on their father’s death. Those were not transferred to their husbands’ authority after marriage. They were made free to divorce their husbands or their husbands would free to divorce them and it needed no more than a notice of intent to dissolve the marriage. Despite so many legal rights given, male domination was all apparent as Saint Augustine, the bishop had described the coercive treatment of his father to his mother. Perhaps that was because of the large gap between the marriageable age of boys and girls i.e. 30 years and 19 years respectively.

(c) Literacy-Advertisements and graffiti (wall writing) in Pompeii reveals that there was casual literacy. The papyri survived in hundreds, disclose documents such as contracts were written by professional scribes. The general public was illiterate but soldiers, army officers, and estate managers were well educated to tackle their affairs. Greek, Latin, Celtic, Aramaic, and Coptic were the languages. The former two were widely used and patronized by the emperor. The latter was mostly in oral form as no script till then developed.

(d) Culture-Diversity of religious cults and local deities is witnessed all through the Roman empire. There were languages like Greek, Latin, Aramaic, Coptic, and Celtic, etc. Greek and Latin, there was diversity in styles of dress and costume, the food people ate, their forms of social organization (tribal/non-tribal) and their patterns of the settlement were also of diverse nature. Aramaic was the dormant language group of the Near East (west of the river Euphrates).

(e) Economic expansion-Economic infrastructure of the Roman empire was consisting of harbors, mines, quarries, brickyard, and olive oil factories. Major trading items were wheat, wine, and olive oil. Wine and olive oil were transported in containers called amphorae. Spanish olive oil of this period was mainly carried in a container called Dressel-20. Prices of commodities were determined on perfect competition as for instance, Spanish producers had captured the markets for olive oil from their Italian counterparts. North Africa subsequently became a major producer of olive oil. During the later fifth and sixth centuries, the Aegean, southern Asia Minor (Turkey), Syria, and Palestine became major exporters of wine and olive oil.

Producer regions of the Roman empire were Campania (Italy), Sicily, Fayum (Egypt), Galilee, Byzantium (Tunisia), southern Gaul (Gallia Narbonensis), and Baetica (Southern Spain). The writers like Strabo and Pliny had stated this fact.

Less advanced territories were the villages like Numidia (Algeria) and Castella. Transhumance was in vogue, as these communities were that of herdsman.

There were well-organized commercial and banking networks, water-powered milling-technology, the use of hydraulic mining techniques, and the industrial sector developed in the first and second centuries. The Papyri survived from later centuries (i.e. 4th to 7th century) reveals an affluent society where money was in extensive use and rural estates generated vast incomes in gold. Only Egypt contributed taxes of over 2.5 million solidi (gold coin) roughly equal to 35,000 lbs. of gold.

(f) Social Hierarchies-Hierarchy of society can be mentioned as

1. senators (Patres),
2. leading members of the equestrian class,
3. section of people attached to the great houses,
4. plebs Sordida (lower class) and
5. slaves.

Italian families were two-third of the total number of senators. The first two groups above (i.e. senators and equities) were merged into one in the early part of the fourth century under emperor Constantine I. Half of all families were of African or eastern origin. The middle class was that of government servants, the army as also ship-owners, traders, and 1 banker. The lower class was collectively known as humiliates. This class comprised of the rural labor force, industry and mine workers, seasonal workers in the agriculture and construction industry, self employed artisans, and slaves. Silver coins were exhausted in the fourth century and gold coins circulated. Constantine founded this new monetary system on gold. There was enormous income from the industrial and mining sectors also as Constantine preferred the promotion of cottage industries.

Conclusion-Thus, we see how an empire across three continents had survived for more than six hundred years. It was a common type of administration wherein diverse cultures, religions, languages, etc. made their imprints, on the pages of history. Coercion and torture of the labor class were, however, pathetic and it finally, gave birth to the revolutionaries like Nero who shattered the system of slavery in spite of it was favored blindly by the senate. During the early seventh century, we see a reduction in this trend after the Jewish war.

Here we are providing Class 11 Geography Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 16 Biodiversity and Conversation. Important Questions for Class 11 Geography are the best resource for students which helps in class 11 board exams.

Important Questions for Class 11 Geography Chapter 16 Biodiversity and Conversation

Biodiversity and Conversation Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Name some biogeographic zones.
Answer:
The lakes, deserts, coasts, estuaries, etc. are some biogeographic zones.

Question 2.
What does the term ‘primitive’ refer to?
Answer:
The term ‘primitive’ refers to early humans who were hunters and gatherers.

Question 3.
During which geological period the mammals go extinct from the earth?
Answer:
The mammals got extinct from the earth during the Pleistocene age about 2 million years ago.

Question 4.
What is the goal of conservation strategy?
Answer:
The goal of conservation strategy is to ensure that evolution continues allowing natural forces to maintain and evolve species.

Question 5.
Name some national parks of the country.
Answer:
Some important national parks of the country are Kaziranga National Park, Sundarbans, Hazaribagh National Park, and Corbett National Park.

Question 6.
Name the two sources providing food to man.
Answer:
Plants and animals.

Question 7.
What do you understand by species diversity?
Answer:
The variation in the physical features of the species.

Question 8.
What are the different types of biodiversity?
Answer:
There are three types of biodiversity: Genetic, Ecosystem, and Species diversity.

Question 9.
What were the main causes of the extinction of mammals in the Pleistocene period?
Answer:
The main causes were:

1. Over killing of animals by humans.
2. Deterioration in climate.

Question 10.
How much percentage of the known plants and animals of the world are at risk of extinction?
Answer:
About 8% of wild plants and 22% of animals are at the risk of extinction.

Question 11.
What are the major determinants of nature and the extent of a biome?
Answer:
The rainfall, temperature range, nature, soil, barriers, latitude, and altitude are the major determinants of the nature and extent of a biome.

Question 12.
Where would you find the greatest variety of hoofed herbivore species?
Answer:
The greatest variety of hoofed herbivorous species is found in tropical savanna.

Question 13.
Give some examples of hoofed herbivore species.
Answer:
They include zebra, giraffe, elephant, kangaroos, and several kinds of antelopes.

Question 14.
Which areas in the world consist of deciduous forests?
Answer:
The deciduous forests are found in the temperate regions of north-central Europe, eastern Asia, and the eastern United States

Question 15.
Name the principal grasslands of the world.
Answer:
The principal grasslands of-the world include Prairies to Canada and the USA, the Pampas of South America, the Steppes of Europe and Asia, and Veldts of Africa.

Question 16.
What constitutes the dominant vegetation of Taiga?
Answer:
Pine, fir, cedar, hemlock, and spruce constitute the dominant vegetation of Taiga.

Question 17.
Identify the important determinants of marine ecosystems.
Answer:
The important determinants of marine ecosystems are depth of water, distance from the snow, and drainage of glaciers and rivers.

Question 18.
Mention three vertical zones of the ocean on the basis of the availability of light for photosynthesis.
Answer:
The three zones of oceans on the basis of the availability of light for photosynthesis are photic, aphotic, and abyssal zones.

Question 19.
Define agro-ecology.
Answer:
The study of the relationship between agricultural scope and environment is called agro-ecology.

Question 20.
What is ecology?
Answer:
Ecology is the science that studies the interaction of organisms with their environment.

Question 21.
Name the positive biotic interactions.
Answer:
Mutualism and communalism are two positive biotic interactions.

Question 22.
Give two examples of fungi,
Answer:
Yeasts and mushrooms are two examples of fungi.

Question 23.
How many species of living organisms exist today?
Answer:
Over5 million species of living organisms exist in the world today.

Question 24.
Name some important abiotic factors of the environment.
Answer:
Temperature, water, light, humidity, wind, topography, and mineral elements are some of the important factors of the environment.

Question 25.
Give two examples of herbivores and carnivores each.
Answer:
Cattle and deer are herbivores, whereas tigers and lions are carnivores.

Biodiversity and Conversation Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What is meant by “Homosapien”?
Answer:
‘Homo’ means ‘man’ and ‘sapient’ means ‘wise’. Homosapien is one of the species of the animal kingdom to which human beings belong. Because of their unique characteristic of wisdom’, human beings are separated from other animal species.

Question 2.
Define ‘ecosystem’ with examples.
Answer:
The biotic community, along with the physical environment forms an interacting system called the ecosystem. An ecosystem can be natural or artificial, temporary or permanent. A large grassland or a forest, a small 1 tract in a forest or a single log, an edge of a pond, a village, an aquarium, or a manned spaceship can all be regarded as an ecosystem.

Question 3.
Describe various structural components of an ecosystem.
Answer:
Various structural components of an ecosystem are classified into two main groups:

1. biotic or living, and
2. abiotic or non-living.

The biotic component of an ecosystem comprises the kinds, numbers, and distribution of living organisms. The abiotic component consists of the kinds, quantity, and distribution of living organisms. The abiotic component consists of the kinds, quantity, and distribution of physical and chemical factors such as light, temperature, water, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and minerals.

Question 4.
How does the background of the habitat determine the distribution of animals?
Answer:
The background of the habitat determines the distribution of animals by enabling them to camouflage against the color, general texture, and pattern. Desert animals like the lion and the camel are sand-colored. Most of the jellyfish, sea cucumbers are lassy. The chameleon changes its color according to its background.

Question 5.
How are plants important to human beings?
Answer:
Plants produce substantial volumes of food for human beings. Besides producing varieties of food crops for man, plants also provide food to their domesticated animals. They also supply timber to serve various requirements of human beings.

Question 6.
What are different types of biodiversity?
Answer:
Biodiversity exists at three levels, viz.,

1. Species diversity, which is reflected by morphological, physiological, and genetic features,
2. Genetic diversity, which comprises genetic or other variations within a species, and
3. Ecosystem diversity, which is reflected in diverse bio-geographic zones such as lakes, deserts, coasts, estuaries,
   etc.

Question 7.
What is meant by eutrophication?
Answer:
Eutrophication is a process that leads to the destruction of the biotic life of water bodies due to the flow of rich effluents into the nutrient water bodies. This destroys or kills the animal and plant life by the deprivation of oxygen.

Question 8.
Give examples of few sanctuaries of the country.
Answer:
Some important sanctuaries of the countries are:

• Annalia Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu)
• Jaldapara Sanctuary (West Bengal)
• Keoladeo Ghana Bird Sanctuary (Rajasthan)
• Sultanpur Lake Bird Sanctuary (Haryana)
• Nagarjun Sagar Sanctuary (Andhra Pradesh)
• Chilka Lake Bird Sanctuary (Orissa).

Question 9.
What kind of people the early humans were from an ecological point of view?
Answer:
The early humans were hunters and gatherers. They may be called primitive. But they were not backward from the ecological point of view. Because their lifestyle was a successful adaptation to the call of nature given the knowledge and technology of life.

Question 10.
When and why did the mammals go extinct from the earth?
Answer:
The prehistoric overkill by early humans in association with deterioration in climate has been recognized as the principal causes for the mammal extinction during the geological period of the Pleistocene, some 2 million years ago.

Question 11.
What purpose was behind the Wild Life (Protection) Act?
Answer:
The Wild Life Act was passed by the Government of India in 1972. The purpose was to protect, preserve and propagate varied natural bounty. Therefore, several national parks and sanctuaries were established to serve this purpose. There are 66 national parks and 368 sanctuaries in India today.

Question 12.
What is the conservation of biodiversity?
Answer:
Conservation means ‘preservation’ of bio-diversity. The goal of conservation strategy is to ensure that evolution continues allowing natural forces to maintain and evolve species. It will maintain gene pools and retain genetic traits that may prove valuable in the future. Conservation also includes future efforts to protect species and to prevent rare ones from extinction.

Question 13.
What is meant by ‘Green Revolution’?
Answer:
Green Revolution is related to agricultural development in India. It came in the 1970s when due to the planned efforts of the government of India, new varieties of seeds, fertilizers, insecticides, and pesticides were introduced to the farmers. This resulted in surplus agricultural production, particularly of foodgrains like wheat and rice.

Question 14.
What are the different types of biodiversity?
Answer:
The green revolution is the outcome of a new variety of seeds and fertilizers. It is also the source of air, water, and land pollution.

Question 15.
Describe the flora and fauna of deciduous forests.
Answer:
The flora (vegetation) of deciduous forests comprises broad-leaved, hardwood trees such as oak, elm, birch, maple, and hickory.

The fauna includes frogs, salamanders, turtles, snakes, lizards, squirrels, rabbits, deer, bears, raccoons, foxes, and songbirds.

Biodiversity and Conversation Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Discuss the human developments that led to a negative impact on the biotic resources of the earth in the modern period.
Answer:
The modem period is the age of industry and urbanization. The population is growing enabled with more lands being cleared of their forests, more soils being filled to grow crops, and more areas being used to erect homes, construct roads, build parking lots, and all the activities that channel resources toward urban locations. The loss of soil, movement of nutrients, and contamination of the environment with tonic materials are syrup to make of the excessive use of energy and unchecked outputs. Virtually every urban and industrial activity has a negative impact on water quality. Industrial and urban sewerage contain hazardous substances and cause eutrophication, diminishing the quality of the freshwater system. Human manipulation of nature has resulted in fragmented and incomplete systems. All these developments have a negative impact on the biotic resources of the earth.

Question 2.
Distinguish between exploitation and conservation of forest.
Answer:
Both the acts are related to human usage of forests as a resource and are contradictory to each other. Exploitation means the usage of forests by human beings in an unfair and selfish manner for one’s own advantage or profit. On the contrary, conservation means the protection of forests. Here also man exploits the forest resources, but with a cautious
effort, i.e. in such a manner that the evolution of species continues, preventing rare ones from extinction.

There are two levels of biodiversity. Genetic diversity comprises the genetic and related variations within the plant or animal species. It is concerned with their origin and evolution. On the other hand, species diversity is reflected by morphological and physiological features of the plant and animal species. It is related to the form and structure.

Question 3.
Distinguish between a National Park and a Sanctuary.
Answer:
National Parks: A national park is an area that is strictly reserved for the betterment of the wildlife and where activities like presenting, grazing, or cultivation are not permitted. In these parks, ‘ even the private ownership rights are not allowed. There are 66 national parks in India. Some important national parks are Kaziranga National Park (Assam), Sunderbans (West Bengal), Hazaribagh National Park (Jharkhand), Corbett National Park (Uttaranchal).

Sanctuary: Some important sanctuaries of the countries are:

• Annalia Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu)
• Jaldapara Sanctuary (West Bengal)
• Keoladeo Ghana Bird Sanctuary (Rajasthan)
• Sultanpur Lake Bird Sanctuary (Haryana)
• Nagarjun Sagar Sanctuary (Andhra Pradesh)
• Chilka Lake Bird Sanctuary (Orissa).

Question 4.
Write a short note on the man-made ecosystems.
Answer:
Humans have changed the environment to a far greater .p extent than any other species. In some instances, the modification is so profound that we call them man-made or artificial ecosystems. These are of variable stability and duration. Villages and cities, orchards and plantations, gardens and parks with their plants and animals are familiar; examples of the man-made terrestrial ecosystem. Large dams and reservoirs, lakes, canals, small fishery, tanks, and aquarium are examples of the man-made aquatic ecosystem.

The most important man-made modifications in the biotic community came with the use of fire, cultivation of plants, and domestication of animals.

All man-made ecosystems including agroecosystems are simpler and highly efficient. They lack the diversity of natural ecosystems. The consequence of diversity is stability. A simple system, on the other hand, is more vulnerable to sudden changes. A single crop agrosystem, for example, may be totally destroyed by drought, floods, diseases, pests, etc. A diversified system, on the other hand, has scope for many adjustments and substitutions.

Question 5.
What do you know about the boundaries of the ecosystem?
Answer:
An ecosystem is an area in which the inputs and outputs can be studied across its boundaries. It is only for convenience that it is considered as a separate entity. Otherwise, ecosystems are not strictly isolated. Their boundaries are indistinct and overlapping. Some movement always occurs in their materials. This movement may be from an adjacent or distinct ecosystem. For instance, a pond may be separated from an adjoining grassland, but some birds may break the barrier and feed on the fish and crabs of the pond. The movement of energy and material can be achieved by biological climate or geological processes.

Here we are providing Class 11 Geography Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 15 Life on the Earth. Important Questions for Class 11 Geography are the best resource for students which helps in class 11 board exams.

Important Questions for Class 11 Geography Chapter 15 Life on the Earth

Life on the Earth Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Name three natural realms of the earth.
Answer:
The three natural realms of the earth are the atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere.

Question 2.
What is ecology?
Answer:
Ecology is the science that studies the interaction of organisms with their environment.

Question 3.
Who is known as the father of Ayurveda?
Answer:
Charak is known as the father of Ayurveda.

Question 4.
What is ‘Charak Samhita’?
Answer:
It is the book of Indian medicine written by Charak, the first century A.D. scholar, who has listed over 200 kinds of animals and, about 340 kinds of plants in this book,

Question 5.
How many species of living organisms exist today?
Answer:
Over 5 million species of living organisms exist in the world today.

Question 6.
What is the science of classification of organisms called?
Answer:
The science of the classification of organisms is called taxonomy.

Question 7.
Define ecosystem.
Answer:
The biotic community along with the physical environment forms an interacting system is called the ecosystem.

Question 8.
Name the positive biotic interactions.
Answer:
Mutualism and communalism are two positive biotic • interactions.

Question 9.
Name some abiotic factors of the environment.
Answer:
Temperature, water, light, humidity, wind, topography and mineral elements,

Question 10.
Give two examples of fungi.
Answer:
Yeast and mushrooms are two examples of fungi.

Question 11.
Give two examples of herbivores and carnivores each.
Answer:
Cattle and deer are herbivores, whereas tigers and lions are carnivores.

Question 12.
What are the major determinants of nature and the extent of a biome?
Answer:
Rainfall, temperature range, nature, soil, barriers, latitude, and altitude are the major determinants of the nature and extent of a biome.

Question 13.
Where would you find the greatest variety of hoofed herbivore species?
Answer:
The greatest variety of hoofed herbivorous species is found in tropical savanna.

Question 14.
Give some examples of hoofed herbivore species.
Answer:
They include zebra, giraffe, elephant, kangaroos, and several kinds of antelopes.

Question 15.
Which areas in the world consist of deciduous forests?
Answer:
The deciduous forests are found in the temperate region of north-central Europe, eastern Asia, and the eastern United States.

Question 16.
Name the principal grasslands of the world.
Answer:
The principal grasslands of the world include prairies of Canada and the USA, the pampas of South America, the steppes of Europe and Asia, and veldts of Africa.

Question 17.
What constitutes the dominant vegetation of Taiga?
Answer:
Pine, fir, cedar, hemlock, and spruce constitute the dominant vegetation of Taiga.

Question 18.
What kind of topography characterizes Tundra?
Answer:
Tundra is a region characterized by snow, ice, and frozen soil for the most part of the year.

Question 19.
Identify the important determinants 6f marine ecosystems.
Answer:
The important determinants of marine ecosystems are depth of water, distance from the snow, and drainage of glaciers and rivers.

Question 20.
Mention three vertical zones of the ocean on the basis of the availability of light for photosynthesis.
Answer:
The three zones of oceans on the basis of availability of light for photosynthesis are: photic, aphotic, and abyssal.

Question 21.
Name the water bodies which form the freshwater environment.
Answer:
The freshwater environment is formed by stagnant water bodies like lakes and ponds, and flowing water bodies like rivers and streams.

Question 22.
Name the major grasslands of the world.
Answer:
Prairies, pampas, steppes, veldts, and downs.

Question 23.
What is an estuary?
Answer:
The estuary is a zone of mixing of fresh and salty water.

Question 24.
What are lianas?
Answer:
The jungle edge is a tangle of sun-loving woody climbers called lianas.

Question 25.
What are xerophytes?
Answer:
Plants that are able to survive in dry regions are called xerophytes.

Life on the Earth Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What is a bio in?
Answer:
Natural ecological groups of plants and animals extend over large areas. Each of these major terrestrial ecosystems or distinctive terrestrial areas with their group of plants and associated animals are recognized as biomes. A biome is, therefore, the largest terrestrial community of plants and associated animals in interaction with the environment.

Question 2.
What kind of animals live in tropical rain forests?
Answer:
The animals living in tropical rain forests include monkeys, snakes, ant-eaters, tropical birds, bats, large carnivorous animals, and a variety of fish in the rivers. Of all the species of insects known nearly 70 to S0% occur in the tropical rain forests.

Question 3.
What kind of flora and fauna characterize the deserts?
Answer:
Deserts are characterized by scanty flora and fauna. Desert plants include different kinds of acacias, cacti, euphorbias, and other succulents. Ants, locusts, wasps, scorpions, spiders, lizards, rattlesnakes, a large number of insect-eating birds such as swifts and swallows, seed-eating quails, doves, desert rats, rabbits, foxes, jackals, and various cats are the common desert animals.

Question 4.
What kind of plant and animal life is supported by tropical savanna?
Answer:
Savannas are characterized by coarse grass and scattered trees on the margins of the tropics where rainfall is seasonal. Wet seasons alternate with dry seasons. Plants and animals are drought-tolerant and do not show much diversity. This biome supports the greatest variety of hoofed herbivore species including the zebra, giraffe, elephant, and several kinds of antelopes. Kangaroos are found in the savannas of Australia.

Question 5.
What are the important features of the Mediterranean scrub forest as a biome?
Answer:
This biome is also known as Chapparal. This is marked by very limited winter rain followed by drought in the rest of the year. The temperature is moderate under the influence of the cool, moist air of the oceans. The biome is characterized by broad-leaved evergreen vegetation. It is made up of fire-resistant resinous plants and drought-adapted animals.

Question 6.
Write a note on deciduous forests.
Answer:
The deciduous forests are found in the temperate regions of north-central Europe, eastern Asia, and the eastern United States. The annual precipitation ranges between 75-150 cm. With the onset of autumn, most of the trees and shrubs become leafless. The vegetation comprises broad-leaved, hardwood trees such as oak, elm, beech, maple, and hickory. The fauna includes frogs, salamanders, turtles, snakes, lizards, squirrels, rabbits, deer, bears, raccoons, foxes, and songbirds.

Question 7.
Describe various vertical zones of the ocean.
Answer:
The vertical zones of the ocean can be determined by the availability of light for photosynthesis. The lighted upper 200 meters form the photic or euphotic zone. The next zone, up to the depth of 2000 meters, gets less light which is insufficient for photosynthesis. This layer is called an aphotic zone. Below 2000 meters is the area of perpetual darkness, called the abyssal zone.

Question 8.
Distinguish between food chain and food web.
Answer:
The food relation in its simplest form representing a producer, a primary consumer (herbivore), a secondary consumer (carnivore), and a decomposer is called a food chain. The next circle of such a food chain is called the food web.

Question 9.
Describe various structural components of an ecosystem.
Answer:
Various structural components of an ecosystem are classified into two main groups:

1. biotic or living, and
2. abiotic or non-living.

The biotic component of an ecosystem comprises the kinds, numbers, and distribution of living organisms. The abiotic component consists of the kinds, quantity, and distribution of physical and chemical factors such as light, temperature, water, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and minerals.

Question 10.
Define ‘ecosystem’ with examples.
Answer:
The biotic community, along with the physical environment, forms an interacting system called the ecosystem. An ecosystem can be natural or artificial, temporary or permanent. A large grassland or a forest, a small tract in a forest or a single log, an edge of the pond, a village, an aquarium, or a manned spaceship can all be regarded as ecosystems.

Question 11.
Distinguish between biotic and abiotic factors.
Answer:
They are two components of an ecosystem. The biotic component comprises the kinds, numbers, and distribution of living organisms. The abiotic component, on the other hand, consists of the kinds, quantity, and distribution of physical and chemical factors such as light, temperature, water, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and minerals.

Question 12.
Explain with examples the role of members of the fungi kingdom of organisms.
Answer:
The fungi kingdom includes diverse kinds of multicellular heterotrophic organisms. There are over 100,000 species of fungi. Some are unicellular like yeast, others are complex like mushrooms. The fungi are the major decomposers and their activity is essential for the recycling of inorganic resources in the biosphere.

Question 13.
What do you understand by biogeochemical cycles?
Answer:
The balance of the chemical elements in the atmosphere and hydrosphere is maintained by a cyclic passage through the tissues of plants and animals. The cycle starts by absorbing chemical elements by the organism and returned back to air, water, and soil through decomposition. These cycles are energized by solar insolation. These cyclic movements of chemical elements of the biosphere between the organism and the environment are referred to as biogeochemical cycles.

Question 14.
What is the hydrologic cycle?
Answer:
All living organisms, the atmosphere, and the lithosphere maintain between them a circulation of water in solid, liquid, or gaseous form, referred to as water or hydrologic cycle.

Question 15.
What is denitrification?
Answer:
Herbivorous animals feeding on plants in turn consume some of it. Dead plants and animals, excreted nitrogenous wastes are converted into nitrites by the attachment of bacteria present in the soil. Some bacteria can even convert nitrites into nitrates that can be used again by the green plants. There are still other types of bacteria capable of converting nitrates into free nitrogen, a process known as denitrification.

Life on the Earth Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
“Food chains are not isolated linear chains of trophic levels.” Comment.
Answer:
In nature, the food relationship cannot be explained only in terms of a single food chain. A herbivore consumes many types of plants or plant products. Many kinds of animals, other than tiger, derive food from herbivorous animals. Ticks and mites, leeches, and blood-sucking insects are dependent on herbivores and even on carnivores. Thus, food chains are not isolated linear chains of trophic levels.

Depending upon the availability and choice of food, different organisms at each level have a food relationship with more than one organism at the lower levels. A rat, for example, feeds on various kinds of stem, roots, fruits, and grains. In turn, it is consumed by a snake which is eaten by a falcon. The snakes feed on both, frogs and rats. Then, a network of food chains exist, which is called a food web. The food web becomes more complicated when taste and preference, availability, and compulsion are involved.

Question 2.
Describe the functions of various biotic components.
Answer:
Various biotic components include producers, herbivores, carnivores, and decomposers. All organisms require energy for their life processes. Food supplies both energy and materials for the sustenance of life. Green plants produce carbohydrates by photosynthesis and also synthesize proteins and fats. The green plants, therefore, are called producers. The animals that consume this energy are called consumers.

The herbivores like cattle, deer, and goats derive their food or energy directly from plants and are called the first-order consumers. The carnivores like tiger and lion depend on herbivores for their food and energy and are therefore called the secondary or second-order consumers. The non-green organisms like fungi and some bacteria, which do not produce their own food, live on the dead and decaying plants or animals and are consumers of a special type called decomposers.

Question 3.
Distinguish between Taiga and Tundra biome.
Answer:

Question 4.
Describe the energy flow in the biosphere.
Answer:
Energy from the sun enters the living world through photosynthetic organisms and passes on from one organism to another in the form of food.

The organisms which trap solar energy and act as producers also use some energy for their own life processes. Only a portion of the energy trapped is taken by the primary consumers. Animals being more active than plants use much of the energy acquired before they are consumed by the next trophic level. At each stage of energy transfer, some amount of energy is lost from the food chain. The amount of energy transferred to the next higher level thus gradually decreases. The decomposition of dead organisms also releases chemical energy. Eventually, all this solar energy that entered the living system through the producers goes back into the non-living world, not as light but as heat.

Question 5.
Describe the carbon cycle in brief.
Answer:
Carbon is one of the basic elements of all living organisms. It forms the basic constituent of all organic compounds. The biosphere contains over half a million carbon compounds. The carbon cycle is mainly the conversion of carbon dioxide. This conversion is initiated by the fixation of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis. Such conversion results in the production of carbohydrates, glucose that may be converted to other organic compounds such as starch, cellulose, etc. Here, some of the carbohydrates are utilized directly by the plant itself. During this process, more carbon dioxide is generated and is released through its leaves or roots during the day. The remaining unutilized carbohydrates become part of the plant tissue.

The plant tissues are either eaten by the herbivorous animals or get decomposed by micro-organisms. The herbivores convert some of the consumed carbohydrates into carbon dioxide for release into the air through respiration. The micro-organisms decompose the remaining carbohydrates after the animal dies. The carbohydrates that are decomposed get oxidized into carbon dioxide and are returned back to the atmosphere.

Here we are providing Class 11 History Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 2 Writing and City Life. Class 11 History Important Questions with Answers are the best resource for students which helps in class 11 board exams.

Class 11 History Chapter 2 Important Extra Questions Writing and City Life

Writing and City Life Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What do you understand by the term Mesopotamia?
Answer:
It is derived from the Greek language which has to means “the middle river”.

Question 2.
What was the land of Mesopotamia civilization at the beginning of recorded history?
Answer:
It was called Sumer and Akkad.

Question 3.
When did Babylon become an important city?
Answer:
After 200 BC.

Question 4.
Who had released Babylonia from Assyrian domination?
Answer:
It was Nabopolassar in 625 BC.

Question 5.
Who was the last ruler of independent Babylon?
Answer:
Nabonidus.

Question 6.
Write Geographical feature and extent of Mesopotamia Civilization?
Answer:
Undulating plains in northeast, flanked by tree-covered mountain ranges, steppe in the North and desert in South- Plains were fertile.

Question 7.
What has been mentioned in the Old Testament about Mesopotamia?
Answer:
Its book of Genesis refers to ‘Shima’ for Sumer i.e. the land of Mesopotamia civilization. This term has meaning therein explained was “a land of brick-built cities”.

Question 8.
Name the crops grown in Mesopotamia?
Answer:
Wheat, barley, peas, etc.

Question 9.
Name the industries supported by nature in Mesopotamia?
Answer:
These were agriculture or farming, animal husbandry (goat and sheep), Dairy, wool, etc.

Question 10.
What is urbanization?
Answer:
A shift of the economy from primary occupations (Agriculture, fishing, herding, forging) to secondary, occupations (manufacturing, processing, trading) and tertiary i.e. a number of services.

Question 11.
Write the names of necessities imported into Mesopotamian cities’?
Answer:
These items were-wood, copper, tin, silver, gold, shell, and various types of stone slabs. These were imported from Turkey and Iran.

Question 12.
What was and is the cheapest mode of transport?
Answer:
It was and is still the transportation over water because it requires nothing to feed while rowing across the river.

Question 13.
What is verbal communication?
Answer:
It consists of spoken sounds through language and writing.

Question 14.
How is writing a specific verbal communication?
Answer:
Spoken sounds are represented in visible signs in course of writing.

Question 15.
What are tablets?
Answer:
Tablets are like written pages with a difference. These were prepared by scribes themselves while writing on them.

Question 16.
What is the style of writing or script used by Mesopotamians?
Answer:
It is a picture like signs and numbers written on clay tablets. Pictures of oxen, fish, grains, number boats, tools, etc are mainly drawn with various signs.

Question 17.
At what point of need, the writing would have begun in Mesopotamian cities?
Answer:
Wiping would have begun when society needed to keep ‘ records of transactions.

Question 18.
To what extent the clay tablet did prove helpful to archaeologists?
Answer:
As written on clay tablets was an easy medium even for a penniless scribe; a giant account of contemporary life, the archaeologists gained through them. This is the reason, more details than Indus Valley Civilization, the archaeologists obtained about the ‘ life of ordinary people in Mesopotamia.

Question 19.
What was the position of literacy in Mesopotamian civilization?
Answer:
As the syllables were used in place of vowels and consonants in cuneiform signs, very few Mesopotamian could read and write. There were hundreds of signs to learn many of these were complex.

Question 21.
What is meant by the term Uruk?
Answer:
It means the city par excellence.

Question 22.
Apart from being means of storing information and of T sending messages afar what dignity had the writing acquired in a civilization of Mesopotamia?
Answer:
The writing was seen as a sign of superiority of urban culture – apart from being a means of storing information and of sending messages.

Question 23.
How many types of settlements formed cities in Mesopotamia?
Answer:
These were of three kinds –

1. settlements developed artistic temples
2. settlements developed as centers of trade and
3. imperial settlement or cities.

Question 24.
What were the major hazards to agriculture in Mesopotamia?
Answer:

1. Frequent floods in quiet channels of the Euphrates (river) and change, of course, causing immersion of agricultural land forever.
2. Misuse of water by the people living in upstream and villages. Downstream were left without water.
3. Continuous conflicts among groups of farmers on one or other issues.

Question 25.
How do you think the clashes /conflicts between war leaders in Mesopotamia would have checked?
Answer:
It could be possible with the creation of new institutions or practices in society such as the judiciary, the government, etc. A change in the attitude of the community would have checked the clashes between the war leaders. Distribution of water resources later-on reduced the possibility of conflict.

Question 26.
Discuss whether city life would have been possible without the use of metals.
Answer:
Actually, city life first starts with the secondary works, and such power of occupation is possible where different tools of carpentry, carving, inscription, etc. are readily available. Again tools can only be made of metals that were imported by the people of Mesopotamia from Turkey and Iran or across the Gulf. Likewise, exchange was possible because people of those countries were in need of food grains as there was less scope for agriculture but plenty of minerals.

On the above premise, we can see that city life in Mesopotamia was impossible without metals which they imported from other countries.

Writing and City Life Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What are the components that constitute urbanization? Discuss.
Answer:
Urbanization grows only when an economy is developed in spheres other than food production. Urban economics comprise besides food production, trade, manufacturers, and services viz. secondary and tertiary occupations. Again, urbanization takes place only in a.country where the raw material is sufficient, self-sufficiency in food grain production achieved and people generally have come under influence of the countries other than their own where several arts likes, sculpture, handicrafts, masonry, architecture, etc. have grown in fact and the people there are benefited.

One should keep in mind that division of labor is the vital constituent of urbanization. It means, even works is divided into several segments e.g, one will quarry the stone, the other will fetch the same to road or path made for cart or vehicle. Some others will do loading on the car, cart driver will fetch the load to destined place, another person v 11 give it proper shape under the expert guidance of artisan, the sculptor will carve it and then some other person will put the same at an appropriate place. Thus, a single work is divided into a number of units and a particular group of people will act upon it till it is completed. Transport is also a major constituent of urbanization.

Question 2.
How can you say urbanization an agglomeration of distinct artisans, craftsmen, and artists?
Answer:
We hardly see primary jobs like daily, agriculture, etc. in cities. The cities, actually are a grid of craftsmen and traders engaged in secondary and tertiary occupations. Interdependence can be seen in the cities-as city people cease to be self-sufficient and depends on the products or services of other people. For instance, a stone carver requires bronze tools, specific stone slabs, which he would get through traders. On-premises above, we justify the statement that depicts urbanization as an agglomeration of distinct craftsmen and artisans.

Question 3.
Whether city life would have been possible without the use of metals?
Answer:
No, certainly not. Metals are key factors in the formation of urbanization. All arts and artifacts require the use of metal one way or the other. In the case of Mesopotamia cities, the scribes would have not composed epics and other documents had there been no tools for digging soil, sieving the same, kneading. Similarly, a trade would have not been possible without vessels that require carpentry and tools for this craft. The reed used for writing would have not got tip oblique cut, in the absence of a knife made up of iron or bronze.

Question 4.
What, was the importance of writing to city life in Mesopotamia? Explain.
Answer:
We know that all societies have languages in which certain spoken sounds convey certain meanings. It is called verbal communication. Writing is also verbal communication but in different ways. In this manner of verbal communication, spoken sounds are represented in visible signs.

Mesopotamia had invented some signs and numbers to convey their messages, to keep a record of transactions in business, and to record events of the contemporary period. It is natural for city dwellers to keep, records of transactions that occurred at different times which involved many people and a variety of goods. Mesopotamia used to write on clay tablets as we find hundreds of written clay tablets in Mesopotamia sites. These tablets were the precious source from which everything pertaining to that period has become apparent before archaeologists.

Subsequently, the writing was used not only for keeping records but also for making dictionaries, giving legal validity to land transfers, narrating the deeds of kings, and announcing the changes, a king had made in the customary laws of the land. It was Sumerian language till 2400 BC but replaced then by the Akkadian language. This language continued for more than two thousand years i.e. up to the 1st century CE.

Literature in Sumerian language, we also see; in the form of Epic above – Enmerkar, one of the earliest rulers of Uruk. Thus, we can say that writing became an integral part of Mesopotamians.

Question 5.
What was an urban artifact found in Mesopotamia? Describe the structure, appearance of the same, and the purpose for which it was used.
Answer:
Mesopotamia’s urban artifact was that of seal making. These were made of stone in a cylindrical shape. Every seal has been pierced down at the center and fitted with a stick. Pictures have been carved on these stone seals. People of Mesopotamia used to roll them over wet clay in order to create continuous pictures. Some seals are found with cuneiform writing i.e. the script used by them.

These seals were used for authentication of the purity of contents in bags, sachets, and cloth package. In course of sealing, wet clay would be spread on the package or on the mouth of a pot, and then it would get seal rolled through. the stick fitted with the seal. These seals were used equally on a clay tablet duly engraved with a cuneiform script in order to give it authenticity. Thus, we can state that seal was the mark of a city dweller’s role in public life.

Question 6.
Write about the family norms of Mesopotamia?
Answer:
A nuclear family consisting of a man, his wife, and children was the family norm in Mesopotamia. Married son and his family somewhere often resided with his parents. An offer from the bridegroom party and acceptance of the bride’s party was necessary. Groom’s party would offer gifts to the bride’s party. They would eat together on the wedding day and the offering would be made in a temple. Dowry system was also in vogue there in the form of herds, fields, or in cash.

Question 7.
Describe the settlements and structure of colonies in Mesopotamia as discovered by archaeologists in the 1930’s.
Answer:
The archaeologists excavated ordinary houses in Ur, a town in Mesopotamia during the decade of 1930. They found narrow winding streets and irregular shapes of house plots there. It indicates that no town planning was adopted by those people. Drains and clay pipes were found in inner courtyards and it is thought that house roofs sloped inwards and rainwater was channeled via drainpipes into a basin-like safety tank. There was no light from the front side but it has been guessed that these were backdoors allowing sunlight to enter into rooms.

There has. been seen no provision of windows or ventilation in houses found in these colonies. Archaeologists consider this system would also have given families their privacy. The threshold of these houses was raised and as archaeologists have found, a clay tablet, it says, the raised threshold would bring wealth to the house. The said tablet reveals the front door not opening towards another was considered auspicious. According to archaeologists, these were superstitions prevailing in the populace there. They state further that the cemetery was only for the noble or rich people and ordinary were buried under the floors of ordinary houses.

Question 8.
How skillfully the archaeologists have excavated and traced a small town at Abu Salabikh and what conclusion from the remains had they arrived at?
Answer:
Unlike the excavation of the Indus Valley civilization, the Mesopotamia excavators have a much higher standard of accuracy and care. They have excavated this small town about 10 hectares in an area pertaining to the period of 2500 BCE with a population of less than 10,000. They aptly scraped surfaces and the top few millimeters of the mud and could make out different colors, textures, and rows of brick walls or pits and other features. They sieved tons of earth to recover plants and animal remarks.

Thus, carefully they identified species of plants and animals and charred bones of fish, kitchens were identified because they searched out carbonized seeds and fibers at those places. As they found teeth of young pigs on the streets, it was concluded that pigs must have roamed freely here. Again they found pig bones in a burial. The archaeologists made microscopic studies of room floors to decide which rooms in a house were roofed and which were open to the sky.

Question 9.
What source of study does reveal the fact that Mesopotamians were proud of city dwelling? Explain.
Answer:
Mesopotamians had to fight wars from time to time against pastoralists and nomadic communities of the Western desert and thus, the cities destroyed in war; yet they recalled them in their epics namely Gilmesh and Enmerkar. These are in long poems. The former epic says that the ruler of Uruk Enmerkar wanted lapis lazuli and precious metals for the beautification of a city temple and had sent his messenger to Aratta, a distant country but he could not convince the ruler of Aratta, he frequently went there and came back to the king. At last, the message was communicated through a letter inscribed on a clay tablet.

The letter epic says that Gilgamesh conquered several kingdoms, but in a historic battle, his fast friend was killed. That event filled his heart with agony so large as he renounced the kingdom and set out to find the secret of immortality. After his journey to far-off places, he at last returned and could console himself by walking along the city wall. He admired the foundations made of fired bricks that he had put into place. He takes consolation in the city that his people had built. This narration confirms the fact that Mesopotamians were proud of their city more than anything else they had.

Question 10.
Narrate how were the Mesopotamians first to calculate time and mathematics.
Answer:
We know that the events and happening may be transmitted to next generations orally and it requires least records to black and white. However, this may not be the case with scientific and mathematical calculations. A written record is a must for the same. As the remains found by archaeologists, we may assume automatically that the greatest legacy of Mesopotamian to the world is its scholarly tradition of time reckoning and mathematics.

It is surprising to know that around 1800 BCE are tablets with multiplication and division tables, square root tables, and tables of compound interest. The square root of 2 was given as 1+24/ 60+51 /602+10/603. Its answer is 1.41421296 i.e. slightly different from the correct answer 1.41421356. in the urban institution of schools, the students those periods had to solve problems like a field of an area such and such is covered one finger deep in water; find out the volume of water.

We can state in brief that Mesopotamians were known to division the year into 12months, the division of the month into four weeks, the day into 24 hours, and the hour into 60 minutes. The successors of Alexander adopted these time divisions and they transmitted to the Roman world, the world of Islamic, and to medieval Europe in an orderly manner. Archaeologists had concluded on the basis of their finding that Mesopotamians were also known to solar and lunar eclipses, the position of stars, and constellations in the night sky. These all achievements were ascribed to writing. Hence, the writing system was the nucleus around which likewise discoveries had revolved.

Question 11.
Do you think the pre-occupation in the urban world of Mesopotamia is a modern phenomenon? If not so, then why?
Answer:
No, we cannot imagine so because Babylonia acknowledges as the center of high culture by the great Assyrian Kings like Assurbanipal who ruled during 668 – 627 BCE. It is worth mentioning that he had established a Library at his capital in Nineveh. He had collected hundreds of clay tablets on history, epics, omen literature, astrology, hymns, and poems. Cuneiform tablets were written as far back as 2000 BCE were intelligible because Sumerian and Akkadian languages till then taught in schools there. Vocabulary texts, sign lists, and bilingual tablets, the archaeologists have found in the above-said library. They have also traced cataloging of the tablets kept in a particular basket in that library.

On the basis of the above, we cannot imagine the occupation with the urban world of Mesopotamia as the work of modern historians there.

Question 12.
Why do you think Assurbanipal and Nabonidus cherished early Mesopotamian traditions?
Answer:
We think so on the basis of the remains of literature available in the library at Nineveh and the accounts given by Nabonidus, the last ruler of independent Babylon, on day tablets. As per discoveries made by archaeologists, Assurbanipal, the last Assyrian king had settled his capital in Nineveh and ruled during 668-627 BCE. Similarly, Nabonidus ruled during 666 – 331 BCE and Babylon was the premier city of the world during his regime. It was spread on land more than 850 hectares with a triple wall, great palaces and temples, a stepped tower, and a professional way to the ritual center.

It has been discovered by the archaeologists that Assurbanipal, above said king, had established a library containing hundreds of clay tablets on history, epics, omen literature, astrology, hymns, and poems. The king himself had declared that he had checked and collected tablets and stored them all in the library for their use in the future. This declaration itself exhibits his interest to keep alive, the Mesopotamian traditions. In a similar way,’ when we talk about Nabonidus, we find by his own writing how he was interested in giving perpetuity to the religion.

It is plausible to mention that he had appointed his daughter as High Priestess and selected her uniform, as he saw on the carved image of the priestess. Again, his interest to restore continuity to Mesopotamian tradition is ex-facie from repair, he got to be done of the broken statue of Sargon, the king of Akkad who ruled around 2370 BCE. He has himself written on one of the clay tablets that in order to maintain reverence for gods and respect for kingship; he would summon skilled craftsmen and get the statute to be repaired immediately.

Question 13.
Why is Mesopotamia known for city civilization? Discuss the main characteristics of that civilization.
Answer:
In order to answer this question, what needed first is to describe the location of Mesopotamia. In this aspect of the matter, we would like to state that this city presently is part of the Republic of IraQuestion Its geographical location can be represented as under:

Mesopotamia-A land constituting desert, mountains, steppe, and irrigated zone.

As we observe in the map above, there are green plains in the north-east, a stretch of upland i.e. Steppe in the north, tributaries of Tigris in the east, a desert in the south. The desert in the south supports cities because the rivers Euphrates and Tigris carry silt and mud here which has made this desert fertile. Crops grown in this desert are wheat, barley, peas, or lentils. Steppe is the grass-land where cattle like sheep and goats are reared. In its undulating plains, there are trees and wildflowers and this land receives enough rain to grow crops. Tigris and its tributaries provide routes of communication into the mountains of Iran. Assyria, Nineveh, Nimrud, Assur, Baghdad, Babylon, Tell Abusalebikh, Uruk, and Ur were the archaeological sites where this civilization was found.

Mesopotamia thus exists between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and known for its prosperity, city life, rich literature, and its mathematics and astronomy. Eastern Mediterranean, northern Syria, and Turkey followed its writing system after 2000 BCE. The language of this land was Sumerian and Akkadian. It is similar to Hebrew and became widely spoken after 1000 BCE. The important cities were Uruk, Ur, Mari, Abusalebikh, and Assyria.

Question 14.
How the Mesopotamian story and that mentioned in Bible are analogous?
Answer:
God had ordered Noah, a man in course of the water body gobbling-up the entire surface of the earth which was resulting in the destruction of life, that we should do something which might save the complete extinction of life on earth. He took a vast box containing single species each of all species of organisms comprising of both the plants and animal world, making these species seated within, and rowed across the water on a huge boat. Thus, the giant deluge could not destroy the earth. This same story has been restated in the legend of Mesopotamia except for the ‘slight’ change of the man Utanpishtim for Noah in the Bible.

Writing and City Life Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Narrate the important characteristics of Mesopotamia civilization and explain how archaeologists could explain so many things about the cities, the culture, society, and family traits of that period.
Answer:
The important characteristics of Mesopotamia’Civilization can be briefed as under –

1. First writing style discovered by archaeologists pertains to the period 3200 BCE. It contains pictures like signs and numbers.

2. It is the first city civilization in the world. It is that of 600 years earlier than the Indus Valley civilization.

3. The first known language here was Sumerian gradually replaced by Akkadian around 2400 BCE.

4. It was the first civilization where the Cuneiform script was used in writing.

5. It was the civilization of pastoral nomads i.e. Akkadians, Amorites, Assyrians, and Aramaeans.

6. The Warka Head i.e. a female head statute exhibits that sculpture had progressed even before 3000 BCE in this civilization. It is a world-famous piece of sculpture admired for its delicate modeling of the woman’s mouth, chin, and cheeks. It was modeled in a hard stone from Turkey. The sculptor has used lapis lazuli, shell, and bitumen decently in order to figurines eyes and eyebrows.

7. This was the .civilization where the first-ever library established by Assurbanipal, an Assyrian king during 668 – 627 BCE. It contained several hundred clay tablets on history, epics, omen- literature, astrology, hymns, and poems. Again, it was the first civilization in which scribes were assigned with the work of writing and patronized by the rulers. They valued the writing system very first.

8. Architecture in its most progressed state, we only see, very first in this civilization. The palace of king Zimrilim at Mari is worth seeing. The plan of the palace exhibits how skillfully, the building has been constructed. The entrance gate, audience hall, outer court, inner court, kitchen, courtyard, scribes office, lavatory, and bath are the features of this splendid building. As described in the theme, these all rooms and halls were beautifully paved, and painting on the walls and ceilings is worth seeing. There were 260 rooms and a covered area of 2.4 hectares.

9. The seals here were of splendid shape and size. These were cylindrically fitted with a stick so that they could be rolled on the objects meant for sealing. Cuneiform writing and pictures of various animals, we can see on them. These seals were inscribed on stones; of special kinds perhaps, imported from Iran.

10. It was the first civilization in which the war leaders began to contribute to temple construction. He would send men out to fetch
five stones and metals for the benefit of the god and community and organize the distribution of temple wealth in an efficient way by accounting for things that came in and went out. They began to build and rebuild temples at selected spots in their villages. Moon god of Ur or Ivanna (the goddess of love and war) were their main gods.

About cities, the culture, society and family traits-
(a) Cities- Cities began to develop from 5000 BCE in Southern Mesopotamia. These were developed around temples, as a center of trade, and imperial cities. These people first began to build temples. The earliest known temple was a small shrine made of unbaked bricks. Actually, temples were the center of all activities like oil processing, grain grinding, spanning, and weaving of woolen clothes. Employer of merchants and keeper of written records of distributions and allotments of grains all settled near temples. Thus, activities gradually developed in the premises of temples, and these became the main urban institutions. Mari was a trading town that was made capital by king Zimrilim during 1810 – 1760 BCE. The subjects were the pastoral people here as agriculture and cattle rearing were the main occupations. Another town was Ur where a dense settlement with unplanned construction, the archaeologist have found.

(b) Societies- As we know, geographical conditions determine the eating habits, dress, houses, or shelters of the people living in a particular land. Mesopotamia civilization developed in a place with grasslands, deserts, mountains, and in the proximity of rivers: Euphrates and Tigris. Hence, nomadic and cattle rearing people used to live here. These included the Akkadians, Amorites, Assyrians, and Aramaeans. For an instance, the kings of Mari were Amorites whose dress differed from that of the original inhabitants. The society there used to live in unplanned colonies except where a royal palace has existed.

(c) Family traits- There were nuclear family systems openly adopted although a married son and his family often resided with his parents. The father was the head of the family. As per written documents in the form of clay tablets discovered by Archaeologists, an arranged marriage system was in vogue there. A declaration was made about the willingness to marry, the bride’s parents giving their consent to the marriage. Then a gift was given by the groom’s people to the bride’s people. The Dowry system was also in vogue as the bride was given her share of the inheritance by the father at the time of marriage.

Here we are providing Class 11 Geography Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 14 Movements of Ocean Water. Important Questions for Class 11 Geography are the best resource for students which helps in class 11 board exams.

Important Questions for Class 11 Geography Chapter 14 Movements of Ocean Water

Movements of Ocean Water Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What is inner space?
Answer:
The world of oceans and seas is referred to as “inner space,”

Question 2.
What are the important mechanisms by which ocean currents are generated?
Answer:
The important mechanisms are:

1. The drag of winds over the ocean surface, and
2. Unequal forces set up by differences in water density.

Question 3.
Classify the ocean currents.
Answer:
The ocean currents may broadly be classified into cold currents and warm currents.

Question 4.
Give the other name of tropical easterlies.
Answer:
Tropical easterlies are also known as trade winds.

Question 5.
Name the force that changes the direction of water drift in oceans.
Answer:
The Coriolis force changes the direction of water drift in oceans.

Question 6.
What kind of currents results due to differences in water density?
Answer:
Differences in water density set currents in a motion described as thermocline currents.

Question 7.
What is ‘gyre’?
Answer:
Due to the Coriolis effect, the moving water turns and follows an elliptical path and it is known as a gyre.

Question 8.
Which current flows as Kuroshio current after reaching the coasts of Taiwan and Japan?
Answer:
The North equatorial current flows as Kuroshio current after reaching the coasts of Taiwan and Japan.

Question 9.
Name the northern and southern branches of North Pacific current.
Answer:
Alaska and California currents respectively.

Question 10.
Define waves.
Answer:
Waves are oscillatory movements in water, where its particles move in a vertical plane, up and down.

Question 11.
What are the progressive waves?
Answer:
Ocean waves produced by winds are called progressive waves.

Question 12.
What is the difference between flood tide and ebb tide?
Answer:
Rise of sea level is called the flood tide and fall is called ebb tide.

Question 13.
Which is the birthplace of common eels?
Answer:
The Sargasso in the western North Atlantic is surrounded by the Florida current. It is often windless and is clocked with seaweed. It is the birthplace of common eels.

Question 14.
Up to what depth in water, the photosynthesis is possible for plants?
Answer:
The sunlight penetrates water up to 900 metres, but only in the top 100 metres is there enough light for plants to do photosynthesis.

Question 15.
When do the tides attain maximum height?
Answer:
Twice a month, when the earth, the moon and the sun are in a straight line.

Question 16.
At what interval of time do the tides occur on each meridian and why?
Answer:
Each meridian has a high and a low tide at an interval of 12 hrs. and 26 minutes, due to rotation of the earth.

Question 17.
Name two types of waves.
Answer:

1. Transverse waves, and
2. Longitudinal waves.

Question 18.
What is the main cause of the tide?
Answer:
The gravitational interaction of the earth, the moon and the sun is the main cause of tide.

Question 19.
What are the main processes of cooling of ocean water?
Answer:
Back radiation of heat from the sea surface, convection and evaporation.

Question 20.
What are ocean currents?
Answer:
The ocean currents are the regular movement of the surface of the water in a particular direction.

Question 21.
When does spring tide occur?
Answer:
Springtide occurs in the first and last quarter of the moon and sun are almost in a line.

Question 22.
Where does neap tide occur?
Answer:
When the sun and the moon are at right angles at the earth’s centre, neap tide occurs in the first and the last quarter of the moon.

Question 23.
What is the drift?
Answer:
The motion of the ocean water, generally at low velocity, as a result of surface friction from the prevailing winds.

Question 24.
What is salinity?
Answer:
It is the degree to which water contains dissolved salts.

Movements of Ocean Water Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Describe the types of ocean currents and their flow mechanism.
Answer:
Ocean currents are of two types: warm and cold currents. The main currents flow from the low latitudes in tropical zones towards high latitudes in the temperate and sub-polar zones. The cold currents flow from high latitudes to low latitudes.

Question 2.
Give reasons why the height of tidal waves varies from place to place?
Answer:
The height of the tidal waves varies from place to place because of the following reasons:

1. The relative position of the moon and the sun with respect to the earth,
2. Distribution of land and ocean on the earth’s surface, and
3. Irregularities in the configuration of oceans.

Question 3.
What are tides?
Answer:
Tides are periodic rise and fall in the level of water in seas and oceans caused by the differential attraction of the moon and the sun. Twice a day, about every 12 hrs and 26 minutes, the sea level rises and falls. The rise of sea level is called the flood tide and the fall is called the ebb tide.

Question 4.
What is a tidal bore?
Answer:
‘The tidal waves follow the direction of the moon. In certain inland seas, where tidal waves reach from different directions, one can find a number of high tides and low tides. When such waves enter a gulf or river mouths, the tidal crests look like a vertical wall of water rushing upstream, which is known as the tidal bore.

Question 5.
Discuss the impact of prevailing winds on the motion of currents.
Answer:
Air flowing over the water surface exerts a dragging force upon that surface, setting the surface water layer in motion. Prevailing winds, such as the tropical easterlies (trade winds), blowing from east to west, and the middle-latitude westerlies, blowing from west to east, exert a one-way drag on sea surface over a vast expanse of oceans. This drag produces a system of drift currents.

Question 6.
Explain how differences in water density set currents in motion?
Answer:
Differences in water density can also set currents in motion These are described as thermocline currents. A surface water layer in one place may be less dense because it is warmer, or lower in density than the water layer in adjacent place that is colder or has a higher density. The water then moves gently from the region of less to the higher density.

Question 7.
Why the circulation of currents in the Indian ocean is different from the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans?
Answer:
The circulation of currents in the Indian ocean is characteristically different from the Atlantic and Pacific oceans because the Indian ocean is landlocked in the north. The circulation pattern in the northern portion of the Indian ocean changes its direction in response to the seasonal rhythm of the monsoons. There is a clear reversal of currents between winter and summer.

Question 8.
Describe the mechanism of origin of sea waves.
Answer:
It is commonly believed that the waves are generated due to friction on water surface caused by winds. The height of sea waves depends on:

1. The wind speed,
2. The duration of wind from a particular direction, and
3. The fetch or the expanse of water surface over which the wind blows.

Question 9.
Distinguish between progressive and oscillatory waves.
Answer:
The ocean waves produced by winds rapidly through the water are called progressive waves, whereas in oscillatory waves each wave passes a fixed reference point, and the water particles travel through a vertical cycle of motion and return approximately to their original position.

Question 10.
Discuss the properties of waves.
Answer:
Waves are oscillatory movements in water, where its particles move in a vertical plane, up and down. The upper part of the wave is called the crest, and the lower part is called the trough. Each wave has a wavelength, velocity, height and wave period. The distance between two successive crests or two successive troughs is the wavelength. The time taken by a wavelength to pass a fixed point is known as the wave period. The vertical distance between a trough and a crest is called the wave height. The ratio of wavelength to the wave period gives the velocity of the wave.

Question 11.
Distinguish between Swell and Surf.
Answer:

Swell	Surf
(1) Swells are the wind-generated waves in the open sea.	(1) Surf also generated by winds but near the beach.
(2) They move in a uniform pattern of equivalent period and height.	(2) This is foaming water which results from highly dynamic wave capacity.
(3) They are generated in the open ocean	(3) These occur in the breaker zone of a shoreline.

Question 12.
What are the disadvantages of tides?
Answer:

1. Tides are sometimes harmful to ships and boats.
2. Tides check the formation of deltas.
3. Marshes are formed due to accumulation of tidal water.
4. Tides also hinder fishing.

Question 13.
Why does the temperature of seawater decrease with depth?
Answer:
The temperature of seawater is the same as that of the surface water up to a height of 100 metres. The surface of seawater receives, maximum insolation. As the rays penetrate the water, the heat is reduced by scattering, reflection and diffusion.

Question 14.
How can the velocity of the ocean currents be measured?
Answer:
The ocean currents flow like extensive rivers in the ocean. The rate of flow and the width of the currents, however, are not uniform. The Gulf stream, for example, is 80 km. wide and 1.6 km. deep. The Florida current has a velocity of 10 km. per hour on the surface and 3.5 km. at a depth of 200 m.

Movements of Ocean Water Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Write a short note on the vertical circulation of ocean water.
Answer:
Besides the horizontal movement, the vertical circulation of ocean water is also an important phenomenon. Ocean surface is marked with sinking and upwelling caused by wind action, evaporation of surface water, the addition of surface water by rainfall and changes in density due to cooling or warming of the surface layer. A most important cause of the sinking of ocean water on a large scale is cooling of the surface layer by loss of heat to the overlying atmosphere in high latitudes.

During long winters, much heat is lost to space than is gained by solar ^ radiation, thereby the relatively warm surface waters brought polewards v by ocean currents are drilled and increased in density. This water, generally close to the freezing point, sinks to the ocean floor, causing vertical circulation of the water.

Question 2.
Describe the currents of the Pacific ocean in brief.
Answer:
The important currents of the Pacific ocean are North equatorial, Kuroshio current, Alaska current, California current, Oyashio current, Okhotsk current, South equatorial current, South. Pacific current and Peru current.

The North equatorial current from the west coast of Central America reaches the Philippine Island, flowing from east to west in the north Pacific ocean.

Turning northward, the North equatorial current flows along Taiwan and Japan to form Kuroshio current. The currents are influenced by the westerlies from the south-east coast of Japan and tend to flow from west to east as North Pacific current. The current gets bifurcated into the northern and southern branches, called Alaska and California currents respectively after reaching the west coast of N&rth America.

The Alaska current flows anti-clockwise above the coast of British Columbia and Alaska, whereas the California current flows along the coast of California. The cold current, the Oyashio, flows in the North Pacific. Another cold current, named Okhotsk flows in the north Pacific and merges with Oyashio current, which finally sinks beneath the warmer waters of the Kuroshio.

Fig.14.3 current of the Pacific Ocean

The South equatorial current flows in the south Pacific ocean. It flows southward as the East Australian current before meeting the South Pacific current near Tasmania, which flows west to east. Near the south-western coast of South America, it turns north as the Peru Current. It is a cold current that feeds the South equatorial, thus completing the circle.

Question 3.
Distinguish between swash and backwash.
Answer:
When ocean waves arrive at the coast of a continent or island, they encounter shallow Water. The configuration of coast interferes with the progress of the waives. Waves in shallow water are modified into ellipses that become progressively flattered as the coast is approached, As the steeping waves continue to travel shoreward, encountering still shallower water, the crest height increases sharply and the forward slope of the wave becomes greatly steepened. At a critical point, the ‘ waveform disintegrates into a mass of turbulent water called the breaker. Thereafter, it becomes a landward moving sheet of highly turbulent water known as the swash or uprush.

The water then begins to pour seaward down the slope in a reverse flow termed as backwash or back rush. Thus, backwash is the seaward flow of a body of water down the slope after a wave has broken on the beach, in contrast to swash. It may also be called the drag of a recording wave.

Fig. 14.4: Longshore drift showing wave action and the movement of beach materials

Question 4.
Write a short note on a spring tide and neap tide.
Answer:
Tides are the periodic rise and fall in the level of water in seas and oceans caused by the differential attraction of the moon and the sun. Twice a day, about every 12 hrs and 26 minutes, the sea level rises and falls.

Tides do not rise to the same height every day. The relative position of the moon and the sun with respect to the earth is responsible for this variation in the height of tides. On the full moon and the new moon, the moon and the sun are almost in line with the earth, and hence, they exert their combined puli. Therefore, on these two days, tides are the highest and are known as spring tides.

On half-moon, the sun and the moon make a right angle at the earth’s centre. The pulls of the moon and the sun partly cancel each other out. as a result of which there are usually low tides called neap tides. This happens on the first and the last quarter of the lunar month when due to their right angular position to the attraction1 and centrifugal forces of the sun and the moon do not combine. This reduces the height of the tides to the minimum.

Question 5.
If there were no ocean currents, what would have happened to the world? Discuss.
Answer:
The oceans contain about 3% of the total water on earth. This water is always available for evaporation into the atmosphere and its subsequent precipitation on the land and the seas.

The general movement of a mass of ocean water in a fairly defined direction over great distances is called the ocean current. Current ranges in scale from ocean-wide flow system to local currents of small extent and can be generated by several mechanisms.’ Ocean currents are broad of two types: warm and cold currents. The warm currents flow from the low latitudes in tropical zones towards the high latitudes in the temperate and polar zones. The cold currents flow from high latitudes to low latitudes.

Water has an exceptionally great capacity for absorbing heat. The circulation of ocean water through currents helps in distribution of heat received in low latitudes to certain areas of high latitudes. In this way, the oceans modify the climate of the earth. Without ocean currents, this modification of climate would not have been possible.

The distribution of rich fishing grounds in the oceans and seas depends upon the circulation of water of the oceans as they bring nutrients to the surface in some areas. This process of bringing nutrients – both mineral and organic to the surface through the upwelling of water and its circulation is known as the ploughing action of the seas. Ocean currents aid in these processes. The absence of ocean currents would have hampered this process.

Ocean surface is marked with sinking (surges) and upwelling (swells) caused by wind action, evaporation of surface water, the addition of surface water by rainfall and changes in density due to cooling or warming of the surface layer. A most important cause of the sinking of ocean water on a large scale is cooling of the surface layer by loss of heat to the overlying atmosphere in high altitudes.

During long winters, much heat is lost to space, than is gained by solar radiation, thereby relatively warm surface waters brought poleward by ocean currents are chilled and increased in density. This water may be close to the freezing point and, therefore, sinks to the ocean floor. Without ocean currents, all the above activities of the ocean water would not have taken place.

Here we are providing Class 11 History Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 7 Changing Cultural Traditions. Class 11 History Important Questions with Answers are the best resource for students which helps in class 11 board exams.

Class 11 History Chapter 7 Important Extra Questions Changing Cultural Traditions

Changing Cultural Traditions Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Mention the period in which settlement of more and more towns took place.
Answer:
It was the period starting from the fourteenth century and resting at the end of the seventeenth century.

Question 2.
Tell the forms of material on European History?
Answer:
The material on the history of Europe since the fourteenth century is found in the form of documents, printed books, paintings, sculptures, buildings, and textiles.

Question 3.
Who has first given the term “Renaissance” to the cultural changes in Europe during the fourteenth to the seventeenth century?
Answer:
It was a scholar of nineteenth-century Jacob Burckhardt, Professor, the University of Basle in Switzerland.

Question 4.
What was the approach of the German historian, Leopold Von Ranke on an approach of a historian should be?
Answer:
The historian should first collect documents from Government Depts. and give priority to writing about states and politics.

Question 5.
What was the view of Jacob Burckhardt?
Answer:
He understood politics is not the limit of history writing. It is as much concerned with culture as with politics viz. these must hang in balance.

Question 6.
Mention the name of the book composed by Jacob?
Answer:
It was “The Civilization of the Renaissance In Italy”.

Question 7.
What other names can you suggest to the renaissance there?
Answer:
It may be a change in the concept of humanity because the culture was then understood as humanity consisting of subjects like grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy. The term humanist was considered as the master for teaching these subjects.

Question 8.
What will you say the virgin rise of a renaissance in Italy?
Answer:
It is ascribed to its location where ports were en route to Western Europe (Spain, England, etc.), Central, East, and South Asia as also South Africa. The incessant movement of people from varied traditions and cultures thus naturally educated the Italians. Islam’s drive to create a common civilization, Eastern Europe being ruled by the Byzantine empire, reshaping a feudal bond in Western Europe all were added to trade ties and Italy took the maximum benefit of this situation by increasing the number of towns there.

Question 9.
Write some characteristics of Venice and Genoa cities?
Answer:

1. These were independent city States.
2. Venice was a republic.
3. These cities were different from other parts of Europe.
4. These were governed by assistance from wealthy merchants and bankers.
5. The idea of citizenship sprouted on a surface in these cities.

Question 10.
When was humanism adopted in the curriculum of universities in Italy?
Answer:
It was during the fourteenth century when humanism as a college subject was accepted in the curriculum.

Question 11.
In what context, the law became a subject of study?
Answer:
Initially, its scope was confined to courts and notaries (a combination of solicitor and record keeper) but shifted later-on to read in the context of earlier Roman Culture.

Question 12.
Who had labeled culture as humanism?
Answer:
It was by nineteenth-century historians.

Question 13.
What Giovanni Pico Della Mirandola had written on the significance of debate?
Answer:
In this book-“On The Dignity Of Man, Mirandola had mentioned that for the attainment of the knowledge of the truth, it is a debate that energizes the mind for stronger and more vigorous.

Question 14.
Mention the period of the middle ages/medieval period in the history of Europe?
Answer:
It was considered a period of millennium i.e. thousand years from the fifth century to the fourteenth century. This period of thousand years had been further divided into the Dark Ages, The Early Middle Ages, and the Late Middle Ages respectively. The dark age had set in after the collapse of the Roman Empire i.e. a period of 500 years. The Early Middle Ages is the period of 200 years and it is that of 300 years when we talk about the Late Middle Ages.

Question 15.
Do you accede to the majority view of scholars that naming Dark Ages to the period of 500 years is not good?
Answer:
Yes, because this way we neglect the inner stimuli which took so long period to its manifestation. Such classification or taxonomy merely on the basis of perception cannot be said well in my opinion. Instead, this period can be stated as Gestation Age.

Question 16.
Do you think the church could rule in the garb of the feudal system i.e. vassalage only because clergy i.e. the first order had perused the books written in Greek and Roman languages?
Answer:
Yes, it was true. The books composed during the Greek and – Roman Empire had several tips on the organization of the society and ruling multi-linguistic masses in all accommodated vast empires. The clergy could extract a new formula of ruling through vassalage from the said literature on politics.

Question 17.
What do you understand by classical architecture?
Answer:
During this period in question, Roman history was read and remains were dug up by archeologists. It inspired a new style of architecture viz a revival of the Imperial Roman Style. It was called classical architecture.

Question 18.
Why is Michelangallo Buonarroti famous ?
Answer:
It is because of his being alone expert equally in painting, sculpture, and designer. He painted the ceiling in the Sistine Chapel for the Pope, the sculpture known as the Pieta in which Mary had been shown holding the body of Jesus and he had also designed the Duomo of Florence City.

Question 19.
When were the classical texts printed in Italy?
Answer:
It was by 1500 CE, the texts in Latin had been printed in Italy.

Question 20.
What had the students in universities to do prior to printing started?
Answer:
They had to read a few handwritten copies or text in the manuscript. These were insufficient to make available every student a copy of that text.

Question 21.
Why according to Machiavelli all men are bad and ever ready to display their vicious nature?
Answer:
Such was because human desires are insatiable and he is motivated to every fair and unfair means to meet them. It is human, weakness and causes due to unbridled mind.

Question 22.
What is human nature according to Niccolo Machiavelli?
Answer:
Human nature is a repository of positive and negative properties. The positive is praised while the negative is condemned „ by the society. The positive qualities are-Generosity, benediction, compassion, grasping while negatives are-misery, narrow¬mindedness, selfishness, hate, and cruelty.

Question 23.
What had been opined by Leon Batista Alberti on, architecture?
Answer:
He had written that an architect in his view is that 5 professional who gets moved weights, beautifully fixed or assembled ‘ them and amassed bodies (structure) by the varied skilled and unskilled people and the same is used by mankind for shelter. His expertise in completing structure by units makes him immortal.

Question 24.
What was the women’s status in business families?
Answer:
The women used to co-operate with their husbands in every bit of their businesses. In families of merchants and bankers, wives looked after the businesses when the male members were away at work.

Question 25.
What are the thoughts of Balthasar Castiglione expressed in her The Courtier?
Answer:
She has defined the potentials of men and women and suggested women bear certain soft and delicate tenderness with an air of feminine sweetness in all their gestures and actions whatever they do.

Question 26.
What virtues does Castiglione think equally necessary for both men and women?
Answer:
These are-to shun affectation, to be naturally graceful, to be well mannered, clever and prudent, to be neither proud, envious or evil tongued, nor vain-to perform well and gracefully, the sports suitable for women.

Question 27.
Which factors or infrastructures linked Italian towns and courts with the world beyond?
Answer:
These were-

1. Trade and Travel,
2. Military Conquests and
3. Diplomatic contacts.

Question 28.
What changes in the approach of the Church were brought by the students of Universities in north Europe?
Answer:
They called on Christians to practice religion in the way laid down in the ancient texts of their religion and undue rituals should be discarded. They told these additions to ancient religion as dirty patches.

Question 29.
What evil practices were brought to light by Thomas More prevailing as per him in Christian society?
Answer:
The Christian would commit an offense and then receive indulgence through clergy as propagated that surrender to clergy would make the man free from sins so committed.

Question 30.
What good did the translated versions of the Bible in local languages do to society?
Answer:
It enables all people to understand that sins bring adversity in the life of man and indulgence through the blessing of the clergy can do nothing in protection from their evil consequences. They should, therefore, never commit any offense.

Question 31.
What did humanist leaders tell the princes?
Answer:
They told that Donation of Constantine i.e. the document giving judicial and fiscal powers to Clergy was originally issued by the Roman emperor but later on forged by the Churchmen. Hence, they should and can withdraw that power from the Church.

Question 32.
What were the keywords in the Protestant Reformation movement and who was its leader?
Answer:

1. A person has not required to priest in order to establish contact with God.
2. It is faith that guides people to the right Life and entry into Heaven or Salvation. Its leader was a young German monk, Martin Luther.

Question 33.
What was the approach to Salvation expressed by German reformers i.e. Anabaptists?
Answer:
They told that Salvation can be attained only when all kinds of social oppression is ended. They told the masses that God has created all people as equal and they are not expected to pay taxes and had the right to choose their priests.

Question 34.
What did William Tyndale say in favor of Protestantism?
Answer:
He stated that the clergy, with a view to maintaining their authority above the King and even above God himself; had forged the process, order, and meaning of the ancient texts particularly because it was in Greek and Latin, not accessible to the common people. He, therefore, intended to translate Bible into the mother tongue in order to lead the mass with real light.

Question 35.
Do you say Luther’s movement was a supporter of radicalism?
Answer:
No, his views were moderate. However, radicalism had merged with the Protestant movement and started claiming the right of people to remove an oppressive ruler and to choose someone of their own liking.

Question 36.
What development did take place in England by virtue of the Protestant Movement?
Answer:

1. The rulers ended the connection with the Pope.
2. The King was considered the head of the Church.

Question 37.
What was the belief of Christians about the earth?
Answer:
They believed that the earth was a sinful place and the heavy r burden of sin made it immobile. It stands at the center of the Universe around which moved the celestial planets.

Question 38.
What declaration about earth did Copernicus, a scientist make?
Answer:
Copernicus rebutted the elusive belief of Christian society about the earth and told that the earth including other heavenly bodies rotate around the Sun.

Question 39.
Why did Copernicus leave his manuscript “De RevolutionibUs (The rotation) unpublished till his death?
Answer:
Copernicus was afraid of the possible reaction to his theory by orthodox or traditionalist Clergymen. This theory was just opposite to their traditional views that the earth is immovable because of the heavy burden of sin as it was defined as a sinful place.

Question 40.
Who had made popular the theory of the earth as part of the Solar System?
Answer:
It was an astronomer Johannes Kepler who in his Cosmo graphical Mystery demonstrated that the planets move around the sun not in a circle but in ellipses.

Question 41.
Who had established the knowledge as distinct from belief?
Answer:
It was Galileo of Italy who told that knowledge is based on observation and experiments viz. scientific process is required to know the things in their real forms. He further told that beliefs are based on hearsay, myth, concoction, and conjecture always untrue hence, bar the path of Knowledge with illusions.

Question 42.
What percussions do you see when Galileo told the scientific process can only lead to knowledge about one and all things?
Answer:
Its percussions were seen in the form of the genesis of Physics, Chemistry, Zoology and Botony, etc. branches of natural sciences.

Question 43.
Mention the names of institutions opened for the promotion of natural knowledge?
Answer:
These were-The Paris Academy (1670) and Royal Society, London (1662). These institutions held lectures and experiments for public viewing.

Question 44.
Is it good to state Renaissance as a period of dynamism and artistic creativity while the Middle ages as a period of gloom and lack of development?
Answer:
No, we can not state likewise because it would mere perception and not a thorough study of the cause that took birth during the Middle ages. Italy is understood as the first place which gave birth to the renaissance where it can be traced back to the twelfth and thirteenth century when it was observing and analyzing the universal color of culture, people, occupations, etc. from its ports.

Question 45.
Which things had to widen the horizon of European skill?
Answer:
These were-

1. Classical consideration of Rome and Greece.
2. Archeological discoveries,
3. new techniques of navigation,
4. the expansion of Islam and the Mongol conquests,
5. opportunity to learn from India, Arabia, Iran, Central Asia, and China.

Question 46.
What was the important change that took place during the renaissance?
Answer:
It was the separation of the private and public spheres of Life. As, per this change, the public sphere was meant by the area of Government and of formal religion while the private sphere was confined to the family and personal religion. Thus, a man was not simply a member of one of the three orders but he was also a person in his own right. It later- on brought the sense of equal political rights to all individuals.

Question 47.
What impact of the renaissance was seen in Europe?
Answer:
Europe was divided or dissolved into states on a linguistic basis viz. A common language of a region declared itself as an independent state in Europe.

Changing Cultural Traditions Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Mention the names of women intellectually creative during the period of the renaissance in Europe.
Answer:
The women like Cassandra Fedele and Marchesa Isabella state were educated in Latin and Greek. Fedele proved that women can also become a humanist scholar and requested every woman to: acquire humanist education. She said-Even though the study of letters promises and offers no reward for women and no dignity, every woman ought to seek and embrace these studies. Her writings bring into focus the> general regard for education in that, age.

Another Lady Isabella Este ruled the state whole her husband. was absent and the court of Mantua was framed for its intellectual brilliance.

Question 2.
Discuss the underlying principle presumptions constituting independent city-states in Italy.
Answer:
The Government in those city-states was of democratic type as the Government of Venice city was a republic. Some others were court-cities ruled by princes. Underlying principles of constituting these city-states can be summed up as under:-

1. It was an institution of Common Wealth. It was the supreme authority of the city-State through the Council.
2. There was a Council constituted by members, all gentlemen of the city who had attained the age of 25 years.

Interpretation of the term Gentleman eligible to membership of the council-
(a) He should be wealthy and qualified.
(b) His Lineage must noble, not blamed, convicted, tried.
(c) Poor people if from noble lineage, can also be selected as members of Council.

Question 3.
Mention the major developments which took place between the period fourteenth and seventeenth centuries in the orderly timeline.
Answer:
(a) Literary/Institutional/Educational Developments

1. Humanism as a subject of study incorporated into the curriculum of Padua University in Italy (1300).
2. University established in Florence. (1349)
3. Academy of Sciences set-up in Paris (1643).

(b) Published/Translated Works

1. Bible was first printed by Johannes Gutenberg, who made the printing press (1454).
2. Thomas More’s Utopia was published (1516).
3. Martin Luther wrote the Ninety Five Theses (1517).
4. Martin Luther translated the Bible into German (1522).
5. Andreas Vesalius wrote on Anatomy (1543).
6. Isaac Newton’s Principia Mathematica published (1687).
7. Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales published (1390).

(c) Painting/Sculpture/architecture.

1. Brunelleschi designs the Duomo in Florence (1436).
2. Leonardo Da Vinci paints The Last Supper (1495).
3. Michelangelo paints the Sistine Chapel Ceiling (1512).

(d) Exploration/Inventions

1. Portuguese mathematicians calculate latitude by observing the sun (1484).
2. Columbus reaches America (1492).
3. Gerhardus Mercator prepares a cylindrical map of the earth (1569).
4. Gregorian Calendar introduced by Pope Gregory XIII (1582).
5. William Harvey links the heart with blood circulation (1628).
6. Petrarch was given the title of poet Laureate in Rome (1341).

(e) Conquests/Wars

1. Ottoman Turks defeat the Byzantine ruler of Constantinople (1453).
2. Anglican Church established in England with the King as its head (1559).
3. Peasants uprising in Germany (1525).

Question 4.
Locate Venice on the map of Italy and look at G.Bellni’s paintings. How would you describe the city and in what ways was it different from a Catherdral town?
Answer:
Venice is in the vicinity of Padua where a university was set up in Italy. This city is on the coast side of the Adriatic sea. As we see in the painting made by G. Bellini under the title-“The Recovery Of The Relic Of The Holy Cross”, there were multi-story buildings duly ventilated as we observe a number of windows around them. There are chimney-like structures in every building. We see roads and lakes between the rows of these buildings. There were ponds, well decorated on which boats had been rowed. People used to gather around the ponds and enjoy rowing, squatting, and discussing their day-to-day businesses. Here we see no market place in the lanes or streets passing between the buildings.

Cathedral towns were settled on the ruins of the towns of the Roman Empire. These Cathedrals were built by Churches from the money contributed by rich merchants. Actually, large Churches belonging to Monasteries were called Cathedrals. The area around … these Cathedrals became popular because they had become the center of pilgrimage. Gradually, grand towns were settled around these – churches. There was a town square, a church, roads where merchants built shops and homes, an office or auditorium where the people. governing the town could meet and discuss the issues. There was high sense constructed around these towns with several gates for entrance and exit. There were parks, shady trees, playgrounds, and bridges to cross the ditch which was dug for defense around these towns.

Question 5.
Describe the different scientific elements in the work of sixteenth-century Italian artists.
Answer:
Following facts we can mention herein, that confirm the different scientific elements in the works of Italian artists-
1. As a professor at Padua University, Andreas Vesalius had dissected the human body till then, the artists went to the laboratory of that university and studied skeleton there. They started working after study of the right structure of a man.

2. Fragments of art discovered from the ruins of the Roman empire became helpful to the Italian artists as perfectly proportioned men and women were sculpted in them. On the basis of this study, one of the sculptors Donatello made lifelike pictures in 1416.

3. Leonardo da Vinci, a botanist, Physiologist, the mathematician was also an artist. He has painted the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper.

His self-portrait given in this theme is vibrant and catchy. Hence, scientist’s involvement help in the development of artifacts.

4. Scientist taste in arts like sculptures naturally had to emerge life-like vibrancy in the artifacts like The Pieta by Michelangelo, Praying hands drawn by Durer, etc.

5. They understood respect in Geometric designs and they understood changing the quality of light. Their pictures acquire a three-dimensional quality.

Conclusion-Thus, we observe that anatomy, geometry, physics, and moreover, conscience to understand the beauty in its immortal form were the ingredients to Italian art.

Question 6.
Compare the aspirations for women (Fedele) and by a man (Castiglione). Did they have only a weapon of a particular class in mind?
Answer:
Aspirations for Women (Fedele)

1. She had advocated the need for the promotion of education among women.
2. She criticized the definition of freedom as it was in the constitution of republic city-states. Eg. Venice because had favored the desires of men over those of women.
3. She advocated humanist education and wished the women to acquire that education.
4. She stated-“Even though theoretically, women are understood broader figure than that of men, practically, no regard is seen for women in European society. Hence, women should come up at the surface and by virtue of educating them in Humanist Education acquire their respected place in the society.”

Aspirations for Women by a man Castiglione

1. Women are of different ways, manners, words, gestures, and bearing more than men. They, therefore, take over the portfolio of a certain soft and delicate tenderness, feminine sweetness in every gesture (while moving, staying) and in all activities they do.
2. He condemns women’s mimicry or coping of men. He thinks her portfolio is different in anatomy and actions.
3. He also considers that virtues like simplicity, generosity, etiquette, prudence and witty, politeness, tolerance, industrious, benevolent glue this common difference between the man and woman. These are; equally necessary in both males and females.

Thus, Balthasar Castiglione, the author of ‘The Courier’, condemns r rivalry between men and women owing to sex difference. He wants to refer that both are like wheels of life carriage and live with maintaining the proportionate difference between but it should not be made a cause for discrimination. Nature itself has bestowed one with delicacy and the other with a robust and sturdy body. This structure should be maintained with a matching soul and its manifestation.

Question 7.
What were the issues on which the Protestants criticized? the Catholic Church?
Answer:
Catholic Church in criticism by Protestants

1. According to William Tyndale, the clergymen had still not made available copies of the Bible in their mother tongue because they were t intended to keep them still in dark.
2. This they had done so that they might sit in the conscience of the mass through vain superstition and false doctrine to satisfy their proud ambition to bag honor from them above the King and even above God.
3. Martin Luther was the leader of the Protestant Reform movement. He said a person needn’t priests to establish contact with God. It is the faith of God that can guide the people to the right life and entry into heaven.
4. The Church had held supreme power i.e. First Order while no specific portfolio it had in the ruling.
5. Some radical opinion was that God has created all people as equal. Hence, they have the right to choose their priest and there is no need to pay taxes to the Catholic Church.
6. As Head of the Catholic Church (i.e. Pope) had failed in performing its duty to the masses, the King should be made the head of Church in his place/state and not the Pope.
7. Monasteries had been indulged in corrupt practices by the fourteenth century in Europe.

Question 8.
Why would Copernicus have kept as a secret his life-long, the theory telling the true position of the earth?
Answer:
The emotion of fear is actually the first barrier that has crippled the progress of mankind in History. It is perhaps due to ignorance or evasive trend towards facts of life and death, both invariable. No doubt, Copernicus was a scientist and thinker of the renaissance period; his attachment to status, position in Christian society restricted him to get the real theory published in his lifetime. Had he shown adventure, the Christian world would have known the truth earlier and gas salary ended earlier than it had removed. This fear of individual life had thus, prevented Copernicus from a good deed for mankind. He wanted to live a life in comfort but the publication of his theory would have annoyed the First Order in Europe (i.e. clergy) resulting in the loss of them all.

He could assign his manuscript De Revolutionibus (The Rotation) to Joachim Rheticus, one of his followers. It says-“The planets including the earth, rotate around the sun.” The illusory statement of clergymen on the same fact was-“The earth is a sinful place and the heavy burden of sin made it immobile. It stands at the center of the universe around which moved the planets” viz. Earth was understood immovable and at the center of Encircumbulating all other heavenly bodies around it.

We see prima facie contradictions in both theories. It would have certainly robbed worldly comforts as also of the loss of life hence, Copernicus deliberately had caged the truth.

Question 9.
How many aims could conclude the dynamism of earth to the extent this fact was accepted by society and we read about them in our science books?
Answer:
The first and foremost astronomer was Copernicus who gave an observation that planets including the earth rotate around the Sun.

The second brain was that of Johannes Kepler (author of Cosmographical Mystery) who said-“Planets move around the sun not in circles but in ellipses”.

The third brain was that of Galileo Galilei (author of The Motion) who stated-“Solar family constitutes several planets and sub-planets including earth revolving around the sun”.

Thus, the fact that of earth’s being rotatory planet i.e. Blue Star was confirmed by three brains at distinct periods of time hence, we now read this fact and understand it easily.

Question 10.
What do you understand by the scientific revolution in Europe during the period of the renaissance?
Answer:
It was the phenomenon of understanding knowledge and’ belief in their true meaning. It gave the human mind power of logic and not an easy acceptance of things under common or orthodox assumptions. Actually, the author like Galileo remarked that Bible lights the road to heaven but does not say how heaven works. These scientists told that belief is orthodox, sophistication, indiscreet state of mind while knowledge is a product of observation and experiments thoroughly for a longer period. Hence, acquire knowledge through inquisitiveness of mind. In the minds of skeptics and no-believers, God began to be replaced by nature hence, natural sciences like physics, chemistry, and biology expanded rapidly.

Conclusion-On the basis of a human inquisitive mind equipped with logic, natural things were taken for deep observation and experiments thereby revival of knowledge; it was all true to say the renaissance was a period of the scientific revolution.

Question 11.
Will you say the renaissance confined to Europe during the period from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century?
Answer:
No, we cannot describe it as a period of renaissance only confined to Europe because Asia and Africa almost in full were connected with Europe during the period in question. A number of sea and terrestrial routes were till then discovered and maritime trade was in its youth. It is true that Europe could attain cultural changes by the classical civilization of Rome and Greece but technologies and skills in Asia had moved ahead of what the Greeks and Romans had known. Thus, we can state that the Europeans have not learned just from the Greeks and Romans, but from India, Arabia, Iran, Central Asia, and China also. It is a universal fact that papyrus was first invented in China and then paper making technique had spread to European cities.

On the above basis, we would like to state that renaissance in; Europe is owed to renaissance much before sprouted but not described in pages of history due to Europe-centred view-point of historians in ‘ Asia and Africa. Apart from the expansion of maritime trade, the expansion of Islam and the Mongol conquests gave Europeans the opportunity to see ‘ and they learned the technologies discovered earlier in Asia.

Question 12.
What do you understand by Private and Public spheres of Life? Explain.
Answer:
The private sphere of life is consisting of the family and personal religion while the public sphere meant the area of government and of formal religion. These two spheres became separate during the period between the fourteenth and seventeenth centuries. An individual was not simply a member of one of the three orders but he was also a person in his own right. He was not just a member of the guild but he was known for himself. It subsequently became a basis for the principle that all individuals had equal political rights.

Question 13.
Do you agree with Albrecht Durer’s statement that Art is embedded in nature, he who can extract it, has it? Justify your answer with illustrations?
Answer:
Yes, Albrecht Durer is nil correct in stating art’s dwelling in nature. Nature in its physical sense, we observe; embeds in it, beautiful landscapes, landforms, vegetation with changing seasons, water bodies including ponds, fountains, springs, rivers, rivulets, and oceans of different size and shape, the flora and fauna, varied altitudes of mountains and hillocks, isle, island, etc. In its metaphysical sense, it embeds resipiscence, power of imagination, gregarious spirit, dedication and devotion, loyalty, dutifulness, etc. a number of virtues.

It depends, however, on the individual, how he can glorify his actions by positive views of his own nature with that of nature in its physical forms. In case, the artist applies his physical, mental and emotional, powers duly balanced and motivated by inner conscience, the imagination will excel and proposed art gets acclamation from the masses.

Question 14.
Whether Jacob Burckhardt, Professor at the University of Basle in Switzerland is correct in saying that history is as much concerned with culture as with politics? Explain.
Answer:
Culture during the period of 14th to 17th century in Europe was considered as humanities as used by a Roman lawyer and essayist Cicero. It was derived from the Latin wood humanities. Grammar, law, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy were the subjects of humanity. Discussion and debates were stated necessary to develop knowledge in these subjects. Here we see that all these subjects are made for society and rules for ideal living, these all contain in themselves. Politics itself tells the processes of social organization and leadership which is possible only when culture is studied and a smooth link between both is established.

In brief, we can conclude that History itself is both the story of culture and politics. Culture determines which type of governance is possible at the material time and the ruler skilled in culture can only lead the mass. History tells about the education, manners, standard of living, customs, and traditions all incorporated in culture. It simultaneously enables us to know about the government, organization of society during a specific period of time.

Question 15.
Imagine that why would eligibility for membership to Council under the institution of the commonwealth has confirmed to gentlemen of the City, State in Italy?
Answer:
A cursory perusal of the commonwealth and government of Venice composed by Cardinal Gas Paro Contarini reveals that only gentlemen who had attained the age of 25 years, were made eligible to the Council and common people were denied membership. Here common people were understood as those ignobly born, poor, and the people very rude and anti-social. It means cruel, unsober, insolvent, misconduct, loose-character people were deemed as common people.

Their instincts and nature are always unchangeable and nothing else but only disruption in Council, they would have made. Hence, they were denied membership. I would like to describe this criterion of selection of members to Council, the major cause of renaissance which developed from the city-states of Italy. Modem democracy is owed to the city-states however, only seeming or virtual appearance has corrupted this system to the extent, here has emerged criminalization of politics in India. Thus, we see citizenship approach had sprouted in Italy. ^

Question 16.
Write an essay on the Universities in Europe during 14th to 17th century.
Answer:
The genesis of the approach to open universities in Italy was the growth of trade and commerce there. Commerce being the chief activity in the city, demand for lawyers and notaries had been spurt up. They were required to write and interpret rules and written agreements. Later on, Francesco Petrarch had brought change because, by his efforts, the law was studied in the context of earlier Roman Culture. Thus, education program or curriculum in universities incorporated, the subjects of humanities till then, known as culture.

These subjects were grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy. The teachers teaching these subjects were addressed as a humanist. These subjects were not drawn from or connected with religion and emphasized skills developed by individuals through discussion and debate. Extracting the approach of Plato and Aristotle, a humanist of Florence Mirandola states that as bodily energy is strengthened by gymnastic exercise, so beyond doubt in this wrestling place of letters, as it were, the energy of mind becomes far stronger and more vigorous. Thus, he states debates as wrestling-place of letters and considers their necessity for making the mind far stronger and more vigorous.

Conclusion-Addition of humanities to the curriculum of University coincide study of law had made the city-states and court- cities in Italy, more progressive and prosperous. We see the well-planned cities of Venice and Florence. Dante Alighieri had written on religious themes and Giotto had painted lifelike portraits in Florence which gradually made that city intellectual and a center of artistic creativity. The term Renaissance often used to describe a person with many interests and skills like Leonardo Da Vinci and Michelangelo.

Question 17.
‘Models of painting as found in Italy are the most catchy’. Why?
Answer:
The artists in Italy were experts in more than one art. For instance, Leonardo Da Vinci was a botanist, physiologist, Mathematician, and painter, all in one. Similarly, Michelangelo Buonarroti was a Painter, Sculptor, and designer. Leonardo Da Vinci had painted Mona Lisa and the Last Supper. He had invented the flying machine also.

Buonarroti painted the ceiling in the Sistine Chapel, made a sculptor “The Pieta” (in which Mary is holding the body of Jesus) and he himself had designed the dome of St. Peter’s Church. One more person i.e. Filippo Brunelleschi was an architect and sculptor both. He had designed the Duomo of Florence. –

The reasons for being Italian art catchy are thus, all apparent. Firstly because it got the hands of scientists and mathematicians. Knowledge of Geometry helped them to understand the perspective and that by noticing the changing quality of light, their pictures acquired a three-dimensional quality. Secondly, they used oil as a medium for painting which gave the greatest richness of color to paintings than before. We can observe the influence of Chinese and Persian art on these paintings. It could possibly due to the Mongol invasion and expansion of their empire.

Question 18.
Why is Italian architecture in sixteenth-century appear the most excellent and admiring?
Answer:
We can give the following reasons for that excellence in architecture-

1. They (Architects) copied many features of Imperial Roman buildings which were till then carefully excavated by the archaeologists.
2. Architects were skilled in science, mathematics, geometry, etc. subjects.
3. Wealthy merchants and Pope had patronized the architects and incentives as also perks were provided with them.
4. Architects were trained in classical Roman architecture and that of Chinese and Persian arts.
5. Archaeologists excavated the ruins of palaces, attics of the Roman style, and architects studied them in-depth.
6. As artists were known individually, by name hence, it inspired them more to exhibit their specialty in architecture.

Question 19.
Do you ascribe the printed books as major aspects of bringing renaissance in Italy? Explain.
Answer:
Yes, the availability of promoted books increased the pace of the renaissance in Italy. 150 copies of the Bible were first printed in the workshop of Johannes Gutenberg, the German who set-up the first printing press. Prior to that, texts existed in a few handwritten copies which could be read-only by the noble and wealthy merchants.

With the installation of the printing press, a number of universities and school’s set-up and scope of the curriculum had been enhanced. There was no dearth of textbooks, the translated versions of ancient Roman and Greek literature on science, architecture, language, Mathematics, moral Philosophy, etc. As printed books became available, it was possible to buy them and students did not have to depend solely on lecture-notes. Thus, ideas, opinions, and information moved more widely and more rapidly than before. This developed the reading habits among people.

When the printing facility increased, the number of authors began to increase also. Authors on the concept of humanity like Francesco Barbara and Lorenzovalla. In his-On Pleasure, Valla criticized the Christian’s injunction against pleasure and stressed prudence, good manners in dress, and acquisition of education in good culture. There were developed women, writers, also. Venetian Cassandra Fedele, Marchesa of Mantua, and Isabella d’Este were pioneers among them. These writers emphasized women’s education and empowerment.

Conclusion–On the basis of the above points, the contribution of books to Italian society is all apparent and the renaissance was brought to Italy with the help of books on several subjects including humanism, grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, law, moral philosophy, religion, politics, natural sciences, etc.

Question 20.
What were the revolutionary ideas of Petrarch and what they did?
Answer:
According to Petrarch, antiquity was a distinctive civilization that could be best understood through the actual words of the ancient Greeks and Romans.

These revolutionary ideas inspired the archaeologists in the excavation of remains in Rome. It brought a new style of architecture. The classical books were translated into local languages and thus, public awareness was created. The clergymen were known to Roman and Greek Literature but they had not made these widely known to masses. So deciphered books brought real light to the masses and they protested the Church under the flag of the Protestant Reform movement led by Martin Luther. A humanist writer of Florence, Giovanni Pico Della Mirandola inspired the public to acquire knowledge through discuss and debates. A number of universities were established and subjects of humanities were added to their curriculum.

Question 21.
Why did the humanists divide the middle ages dr the medieval period of a millennium in the Dark Ages, The Early middle ages, and the late middle ages?
Answer:
According to the humanists, the dark age had set-in after the collapse of the Roman empire in the fourth century. They enumerated a period of 500 years under the Dark Ages. This was the reason, the later historians assumed that the new age had begun in Europe from the fourteenth century. They argued that in the Middle Ages, the Church had pressed humans to forget all the learning of the Greeks and Romans. It had introduced the system of vassalage or Feudal System in order to enjoy first order in the society.

Question 22.
‘Multilingual translation of the works of Greek writers on one hand and that of Arabic and Persian on other European languages had helped in the transmission of science and technology:- Do you agree to this statement?’
Answer:
Yes, we agree with the above statement because there were books on subjects like administration, mathematics, moral philosophy, grammar, and poetry but beyond the reach of common people. The Church was not willing to propagate its actual contents in order to maintain its supremacy. However, in the fourteenth century, they get translated by Arab people in the Arabic language which could be easily understood by the masses. Some Europeans, just after perusal of these books in the Arabic language, retranslated them in the local languages of Europe.

Muslim writers were Ibn Sina, Al-Razi, and Ibn Rushd. An Arab philosopher Ibn Rushd had tried to resolve the tension between philosophical knowledge and religious beliefs. His methods were adopted by Christian thinkers. Thus, the translation of books in several languages helped in the promotion of science and technologies not only in Italy but in all other parts of Europe also.

Question 23.
Give a brief account of the new concept of human beings.
Answer:

1. It was against the control of religion over human life.,
2. Acquisition of material wealth, power, and glory is a usual instinct of human beings and cannot be tantamounted to vice.
3. The study of history leads a man to strive for a life of perfection hence, Christian injunction against pleasure is untenable.
4. A person of culture should learn good manners including politeness and simplicity.
5. Individuals irrespective of poor and weak are capable of shaping through other means.
6. Self-interest is the most powerful motive hence, a cordial and congenial environment for the proliferation of self-interest should be provided to the people.

Question 24.
Give a brief account of woman status in Europe during 14th to 17th century.
Answer:

1. Women were given no political rights.
2. Families were dominated by husbands.
3. Money obtained in dowry was invested in the family businesses but women had no say in how that business should run.
4. If the father could not arrange to suffice dowry, his daughter would go to the convent to live the life of a nun.
5. They were keepers of the households without any public role given to them.

Thus, on the above points, we can state that the patriarchal system was strictly followed in Europe in whom, women were treated as mere instruments in the hands of their husbands without any right in property and role in public life.

Question 25.
Do you think all women in Europe during the period 14th to 17th century were equally neglected? If not, describe the social and family status of other women?
Answer:
We would like to state here that the position of women in families of merchants and bankers was somewhat different than those of common women in the society. In these families, women used to work as partners to the firm or business and made responsible to look after the businesses when the male members were away at work.

A few women in European society were intellectually more creative and sensitive about the importance of humanist education. One among these women, Cassandra Fedele wished to see all women duly educated in humanism. She had stated-“Even though the study of letters promises but offers no reward for women and no dignity”. That lady was proficient in Greek and Latin and was invited to give orations at the University of Padua in Italy.

She criticized the constitution of republics in which women’s freedom was hanged on the desires of men. Another woman was the Marchesa of Mantua, Isabella d’Este who ruled the state while her husband was absent and the small state of Mantua proliferated under her skilled administration. These women writers wished economic power, property, and education to women so that they could make their respected place in men dominated society of Europe.

Question 26.
What were the percussions of a new culture of humanism all over the world from Italy? Discuss.
Answer:
The new culture of humanism spread all over the world because of trade and travel, military conquests and diplomatic contacts of each two countries as routes of them pass through Italian towns and courts. The different response it could bag from diversified institutions which we can mention as under:-
(a) Churches-In north Europe, the members of the Church summoned Christians to practice religion in the way laid down in the ancient texts of their religion discarding undue rituals. They told them additions made to the simple religion.

The philosophers there declared that Almighty has allowed man to live with complete freedom in the pursuit of happiness. Humanists like Thomas More and Erasmus of England and Holland respectively assumed Church’s role as extortionist simple and common people. Clergy would say the devotee, fill my bag and attain to indulgences against whatever crime/offense you have committed. Such practice was not allowed in religion in its original and simple form.

(b) Rebels and movements-Taxes imposed by Church were protested by peasants. Church’s interference with state matters, restricted the princes. Emperor would issue the document pertaining to the donation of Constantine under his own discretion-was the demand of resented Christians.

Martin Luther, a monk-led the Protestant Reformation movement against the Catholic Church voicing no need for priests in divine matters and it is faith that guides the course of life and to salvation. Luther’s ideas were popularised by Ulrich Zwingli and Jean Calvin.

Radicals protested under the stimulus of Salvation, a state where oppression is ceased in full.

A scholar like William Tyndale in course of Bible translation, stated frankly that it was a trick of clergyman not to make available, the scriptures translated in local languages to the mass with malicious intention to keep them in dark and fill their head and heart with rules, laws, canons fabricated by Clerics for their advantage.

Result-

1. Catholic Church allowed protestants to worship as they choose.
2. The illiterate section of society was driven with the same whip.
3. King or Queen became the head of the Church. Pope’s supremacy ended.
4. Society of Jesus set-up in an attempt to face Protestants by Ignatius Loyola in Spain.

Changing Cultural Traditions Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Why would have this theme named Changing Cultural Traditions? Find the reasons in context with several developments that took place during the 14th to 17th centuries in European society? Would you say it Renaissance or circumstantial regression and revival of cultural pursuit?
Answer:
We would like to state that Italy has been acted as the axil or nucleus to accumulate all traditions and political set-up all over the world, particularly Asia and Africa and the rest parts of Europe; in its vision and sprout with conclusive cream aspects of them all. Italy got this opportunity because of passing all maritime and terrestrial routes through it.

The major developments mutely observed by Italy i.e. the place of emergence of renaissance all over world were-vassalage in Western Europe, its unification and the Latin Church, Eastern Europe under the Byzantine Empire, and Islam’s missionary zeal to create a common civilization.

A model had formed in Italy with changes in cultural tradition and then transmitted to all over the world. Therefore, the title of the theme is consistent with the content.

Results Surfaced:-
(A) Structure and Features of city-states in Italy-

1. Independent city-states and city courts constituted in Italy.
2. Some were republics while some others were court-cities like Mantua.
3. Commonwealth was the government with Councils constituted by gentlemen, noble and ennobled who had attained 25 years ago.

Result-A foundation stone of democracy, however, appeared impliedly.
(b) Humanism in University Curriculum-

1. Universities set-up in Padua and Bologna.
2. Law was the main subject in order to module lawyers and notaries to satisfy the increasing demand
3. Humanities derived from the Latin term Humanitas and understood as a culture.
4. Humanist has understood in the meaning a teacher who taught grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy.
5. These subjects were added to the curriculum of Universities.
6. Discussion and debates in order to gain expertise on these subjects made mandatory.
7. Similarly, observation and experiment with the things in order to known reality about them were made essential or compulsory.

Changes/Results-
1. Debate and discussions on humanity and observation and experiments with issues/things/topics trained the authors like Giovanni. Pico Della Mirandola (On The Dignity of Man), Cardinal Gasparo Contarini (The Common Wealth and government of Venice), Dante Alighieri (religious themes), Artists like Giotto (child Jesus, Assisi), The Pieta sculpture by Michelangelo Buonarroti, Filippo Brunelleschi, etc. The humanists who grew in that period were-Giovanni Pico Della Mirandola, Francesco Petrarch, Venetian Cassandra Fedele, Isabella d’Este, Martin Luther, Thomas More, Erasmus, Ulrich Zwingli, and Jean Calvin.

2. There were people like Leonardo da Vinci, experts in astronomy, painting, architect, and sculpture simultaneously. On account of an inquisitive mind and congenial atmosphere of discussion and debates on subjects of humanities in Universities.

3. Printing Press was installed and it facilitated the study environment. Science academies, schools, and colleges increased in numbers.

4. Classical or Roman and ancient Greek literature on medicine, physiology, religion, theology, and law got translated in Arabic and Persian and then in local languages of Europe. It created public awareness of true religion. It resulted in sheer criticism of the Church, shifting of taxation power to King/Queen, monarchy in place of Churchs, supremacy took place.

5. Peasants movements and Protestant Reform Movement was launched.

6. Radical Protestants took the meaning of salvation, a state when all kinds of suppressions are ended.

7. Church agreed to allow protestants to worship of lord in their own manner.

8. The church accepted the subordination of the King.

9. Women humanists like Cassandra Fedele and Isabella d’Este advocated women’s rights equal to men and emphasized women’s education.

10. Quotations, musings by painters, books on humanities, and natural sciences all are ascribed for Changing Traditions.

11. Classical architecture came into existence owing to excavations by archeologists, the sites of the Roman empire, and towns of that period.

12. Technologies and science were contributed by India, Central Asian countries, China, North Europe, and African countries owing to the growth of trade, travel, and commerce as also Mongol conquests, etc.

13. Separate recognition of the public sphere and private spheres of human life. Individual identity got recognition besides constitutional (i.e. guild, profession, government, and any other organization) identities.

14. Europe dissolved into smaller states on a linguistic basis. A separate sense of identity was thus, understood on the basis of language.

Conclusion-Education is also an integral part of culture having infinite potentials. In the root of cultural changes, we observe systematic promotion of education through ancient Greek and Roman literature on science, administration, religion, architecture, sculpture, painting, etc. during the period in question in Europe? countries symbolized by Italy and her city-states with CommonWealth governance. In brief, it was a phenomenon of education in humanities and natural sciences.

Renaissance or Circumstantial regression and revival of Cultural pursuit-It was actually circumstantial regression and revival of cultural pursuit because vassalage or feudal system and its modified form (i.e. new monarchy) subsequently, have reached the climax and common people had shown annoyance to the system. Churches, monasteries, Cathedrals, Benedictine Churches; all were exporting wealth from the peasants and serfs. Their, interference in the stately affair became intolerable to the princes. Corruption was increased and common people were exploited brutally. The gross effect of that circumstance could be seen in the constitution of city-states in republic and people became curious to know religion in its real form. It stimulated translation of Bible in Local languages, humanities added to university and school curriculum and thus, all ingredients, to changing cultural traditions, were formed.

Here we are providing Class 11 History Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 1 From the Beginning of Time. Class 11 History Important Questions with Answers are the best resource for students which helps in class 11 board exams.

Class 11 History Chapter 1 Important Extra Questions From the Beginning of Time

From the Beginning of Time Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
When and where did the earliest form of human evolve?
Answer:
About 5.6 million years ago (MYA) in Africa.

Question 2.
What are the main sources of information about the earliest forms of humans?
Answer:
These are-

1. Human fossils
2. stone tools and
3. cave painting.

Question 3.
What name to the genus of humans was given to the fossils found at Neander Valley?
Answer:
Homo Neanderthalensis.

Question 4.
Where are found earliest fossils of Homo erectus?
Answer:
In Africa and Asia.

Question 5.
Write the names of the countries in Africa where the earliest human forms were found?
Answer:
These were-

1. Chad
2. Ethiopia
3. Tanzania and
4. Kenya.

Question 6.
What similarities are found in humans and mammals (i.e. apes and monkeys)?
Answer:

1. Monkeys and humans know various uses of hands.
2. Monkey can walk like man viz. bipedal.
3. The shape of the skull, forehead, eyes, and ears are7 similar.
4. Five fingers are found in the hands of humans and that of monkeys/apes.

Question 7.
On what grounds can you say Africa the first continent where the earliest human form was developed?
Answer:

1. African apes resemble more to hominids (earliest form)
2. The fossils found in Africa relate to about 5.6mya.

Question 8.
Who had discovered the first Homo habilis in Tanzania?
Answer:
It was Mary working under chairperson L.S.B. Leakey.

Question 9.
Why was the earliest species named Homo habilis?
Answer:
It was because that species was associated with the Paleolithic age.

Question 10.
Name the place where evidence of flakes and hand axes are found.
Answer:
At Kilombe and Olorgesailie in Kenya during the period 7 lakh and 5 lakh years ago.

Question 11.
When did the earliest man start living in the caves and open-air sites?
Answer:
It was between four lakh and 1 – lakh years ago because a caveat Lazaret in Southern France has been discovered. Flere a shelter measuring 12 x 4metres was built against the cave wall.

Question 12.
What evidence had shown that the primitive man learned first the use of fire 1 – lakh years ago?
Answer:
A Hearth, pieces of baked clay, and burnt bone and stone tools have been found at Chesowanja, Kenya, and Swartkrans in South Africa.

Question 13.
What is the controversy existed among archaeologists regarding the paintings discovered from the sites?
Answer:
Some say the paintings of animals are associated with rituals because of the importance of hunting. Some others tell these caves as meeting places for small groups of people or locations for group activities. These paintings would have served as the media for pursuing information from one generation to another.

Question 14.
What period has been considered as a development of language among primates?
Answer:
Some suggest the period of Homo habilis because of certain brain features developed till then. It means the language was developed about 21akh years ago. Some scholars say it developed around 40,000 to 35,000 years ago. They connect it with the time when primates learned art and painting.

Question 15.
What behavioral patterns or response was seen among hunting-gathering society living in Kalahari desert?
Answer:
It was a hunting-gathering society named! Kung San visited by a member of an African pastoral group in 1870 at the Kalahari Desert. He saw the special features of their feet and found their villages empty as they are afraid of him and hid in the bush.

From the Beginning of Time Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What do you understand by the term Hominid? Explain.
Answer:
It is a member of the Superfamily Hominoidea from which hominids evolved E.g. apes. Their body is larger, they are without tail, upright posture, bipedal locomotion, and expert hands in making and using tools.

Question 2.
What do you mean by the term “glaciations”? How was the period following glaciations suitable for the origins of Homo?
Answer:
Glaciations in the period of the Ice age. The temperature receded and the larger parts of the earth were covered with ice. Periods of warm, wet, and cold dry climate have been known to alternate from the beginning of time. Grassland areas expanded owing to a sudden change in temperature, the earlier genus Australopithecus had got extinction due to the loss of forests. Thus, the species adapted to drier conditions originated among which Homo (i.e. modern-looking humans) was one of the species.

Question 3.
Why is Tanzania considered important from the angle of the discovery of the earliest societies’
Answer:
It was Olduvai George or ravine located in the Serengeti plain of northern Tanzania in Africa where the archaeologists found the maximum amount of information about hominid activity over the last 2 million years. Olduvai is a deep ravine extended more than forty kilometers in length. Animal bones and remains of forty individuals . have been found here. There were also found traces of 150 species of extinct animals. Mary and Lousie Leakey had identified these fossils and remains of 1.85mya in the early twentieth century. They also found chopping tools and flake tools there.

Question 4.
What were the ways of obtaining food among early societies?
Answer:
As per evidence obtained by archaeologists, there were four ways of obtaining food prevalent among early societies of primates. These were-

1. gathering
2. hunting
3. scavenging and
4. fishing.

Collection of edible seeds, nuts, berries, fruits, and tubers denote gathering activity. The archaeologists say, “there is very little evidence for gathering activity”. There is controversy about scavenging or foraging for meat and marrow activity adopted by hominids. The majority of opinions establish eating of the dead animals by them. It is equally possible that rodents, eggs, birds, reptiles, and insects may have been eaten by hominids. Hunting activity was adopted after a long period of scavenging activity. It came into existence around 5 lakh years ago. Evidence of hunting activity was collected from Boxgraove in England and Schoringen in Germany.

Question 5.
Whether modern humans originated from one region or several regions simultaneously? Explain logically.
Answer:
There are two divergent views about the origin of modem humans:

1. Regional continuity model (with multiple regions of origin) and
2. Replacement model (with a single origin in Africa).

According to the former view, modern humans evolved at different rates in different regions. This is the reason, variations in the first appearance is found. It has been seen that there are differences in populations of Homo erectus and Homo Heidel biogenesis of the same region.

The latter view favors complete replacement everywhere of all older forms of humans with modem looking humansGenetic and physiological similarity supports this view. Fossils found at Omo in Ethiopia support this view.

Question 6.
Describe any aborigine society at present which can throw light on the hunting-gathering societies of the past.
Answer:
The living memories of Hazda aborigine in Tanzania (Africa) throw light on the hunting-gathering societies millions of years ago. We see thorn scrub and acacia trees grown in Eastern Hazda, a dry land rocky Savanna. There is no dearth of wild foods in this Savanna. Animals live elephants, rhinoceros, buffalo, giraffe, zebra, wiser back, gazelle, warthog, lion, leopard, and hyenas are amply found here.

Apart from the flesh of these animals, Hazda society enjoys its food of roots, berries, baobab fruit, etc. Smaller animals for food are also available here. This are-porcupine, hare, jackal, tortoise, etc. Seven species of bees are also found here and honey is eaten. They make their home in the trees and caves in the rocks. They assert no rights over land and every individual of society is free to live where he desires. They do frequent change and shift in their camps or dwelling places.

Question 7.
Explain the physical features of Australopithecus, the genus of the earliest primate.
Answer:
This name was given to the apes whose fossils found in South Africa. Their species is still found. This earliest form of human still retained smaller brain size, large back teeth, and limited dexterity of the hands. It is tough for them to walk regular bipedal. They still live in trees. They have long fore-limbs, curved hand and foot bones, and mobile ankle joints. With the course of time, they could have started making tools and exerted pressure on walking. This regular exercise of body parts should have brought them in modem looking man – it can be guessed.

Question 8.
Describe the gradual evolution of modem looking humans in the sequence.
Answer:
While going over the pedigree of earlier societies, we observe that they are classified into the group, the superfamily, family, genus, and species according to gradual changes in their physical forms. The order of group contains primates in which the earliest apes/monkeys of the world in Africa and Asia are kept. At time scale, it refers to 36 – 24 million years ago (mya). The second step of evolution which took place during 24mya is put underclass – superfamily. It was the period of Hominids consisting of Gibbons, orangutan, and African apes (viz. gorilla, Chimpanzee, and bonobo or pygmy Chimpanzee).

The Hominoids thereafter classified in the family during 6.4mya. These were only early humans known as Hominids. The so-called time i.e., 5.6mya grouped as a genus consisting of Australopithecus and Homo. The change in their physical features and activities during the period 2.2mya, 1.8mya, and 0.8mya were grouped in species because “Homo” had got three simultaneous growing species i.e. Habilis, Erectus, and archaic Sapiens respectively. Finally, during 0.19 to 0.16mya certain specific changes in body, mind, motors, and instincts were seen, and the historians as also archaeologists had declared the resultant Homo as Sapiens sapiens or the modem-looking humans.

Question 9.
How can you say that the Homo heidelbergensis and Homo Neanderthalensis primates found in Germany were migrated from Africa?
Answer:
The first and foremost ground is that the group of African apes is most closely related to hominids. Secondly, the earliest hominid fossils are present in East Africa from about 5.6mya. while those found outside Africa are no earlier than l.Omya. One more thing that supports our assumption is that the early hominid fossils belong to the genus Australopithecus. The fossils of Homo heidelbergensis and Homo Neanderthalensis of Germany pertain to 0.8 and 0.1 mya i.e. after 4 -mya of the fossils found in Africa. Fossils of Neanderthals discovered from Europe, Western and Central Asia belong to roughly 1,30,0 to 35,000 years ago. On these premises, we can state that the earliest societies migrated from Africa to other continents including Asia and Europe.

Question 10.
When did the primates begin the use of caves and open-air sites? Give your answer with archaeological evidence.
Answer:
On the basis of archaeological evidence, it can be stated that the primates should have used to live in caves and open-air sites sometime between 4 and 1-j lakh years ago. Two hearths, shelter 12 x 4metre and flimsy shelters had been discovered. The sites from where artifacts and other things found are Kilombe and Olorgesailie in Kenya (dated between 71akh and 51akh years ago) and Terra Amata in France (Dated between 4 lakh and 1- lakh years ago).

Construction of huts, post holes, tents, storage pits and circular pattern of dwelling places started around 35,000 years ago as traces of likewise construction has been discovered by Archaeologists. The evidence of hearth can be understood as the best evidence for use of fire by primitive people during 1-lakh years ago. Such evidence is found at Chesowanja, Kenya, and Swartkrans in South Africa.

Question 11.
Write the stages of development of language in earliest societies? Do you think humans know a fully developed language from the outset?
Answer:
We see every manner, effort, and application of physical organs as also mental intuitions/ instinct among primates started in a seriatim and never it got a windfall or phenomenon with the pace of increase in needs, the man had ab-initio did invention or forage. The exact time for spoken language cannot be stated as there is lying certain controversy. The fossils of Homo habilis (dated between 2.2 and 2mya) discovered from Omo in Ethiopia and Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania (dated between 1.85 and 1.6mya) had certain features that would have made it possible for them to speak. Hence, we associate that period with the beginning of spoken language among primitive people.

The vocal tract was developed in them 21akh years ago. Some relate the beginning of spoken language to 40,000 to 35,000 years ago when they learned art and painting. Among hominids, the language was in the form of gestures and hand movements. According to some other scholars, the primates learned first singing and humming. It was vocal but non-verbal communication. It has been considered that humans may have possessed a small number of speech sounds in the initial stage and gradually, it would have developed in straight forward language.

Question 12.
Whether the information about living hunters and gatherers can be used to reconstruct the life of humans in the remote past?
Answer:
Currently, there are two opposing views on this issue. A group of scholars applies existing data of hunting-gathering societies for interpretation of the remains of the past. They say the hominid sites dated 2mya of Turkana lakeside could have been dry season camps of early humans. Some other scholars refuse this view. According to them, likewise, ethnographic data cannot be used for understanding the past societies as the two are absolutely different e.g. present-day societies pursue some other economic activities simultaneous to hunting and gathering.

They do exchange and trade of minor forest produce or work as paid labor in the fields of neighboring farmers. There is also little consensus on the division of labor in food procurement. Somewhere we see women engage them in gathering and men hunt but at some other places, both of them are equally engaged in gathering, hunting, and tool making. However, we can say it with confirmation that women had a predominant role in contributing to the food supply in such societies. In such a circumvent position, it is difficult to make any such reference for the past.

Question 13.
What questions have been raised regarding printing, engraving, and female-male figurines discovered in remains dated 30,0 years ago? Write the explanations to them also.
Answer:
We know that several remains of artifacts, including painting, engraving, etc. have been discovered in the cave of Altamira in Northern Spain, Dolni Vestonice, Predmosti, Lascaux cave, and Grotte Chauvet in France dated back 50,000 years ago.
The questions raised about them are-

1. Why do some areas of caves have paintings and not others?
2. Why some animals were painted and not others?
3. Why men were painted individually and in groups?
4. Why women depicted were only in groups?
5. Why men were painted near animals but never women? And
6. Why groups of animals were painted in the areas of caves where sounds carried well?

Explanation-

1. Paintings of animals were associated with ritual and magic because of the importance of hunting,
2. It might have possible that those caves were meeting places for small groups of people or locations for group activities,
3. It is difficult to tell something certain about the function of female figurines.

Question 14.
Mention the name of sites and the period, the earliest fossils of modern humans discovered by archeologists.
Answer:
The human fossils were found first in Ethiopia (Africa) at Omo Kibish I. These fossils relate to the period 1.951akh to 1.60lakh years ago. The fossils found in Border cave, Die Kelders, and Klasies River mouth (Africa) are of 1.201akh – 50,000 years ago. Human fossils discovered at Dares Solton in Morocco relate to 70,000 – 50,000 years ago. Similarly, the fossils at Qafzeh Skhul in Israel relate to the period 1 lakh – 80,000 years ago. Fossils found at Niah cave in Borneo dated to 40,000 the others at Lake Mungo in Australia dated to 45,000 – 35,000 years ago, that of Liujiang and Zhoukoudien in China dated to 20,000 – 15,000 years ago and that of Cro-Magnon (near Les Eyzies) in France dated to 35,000 years ago.

Question 15.
What do you understand by the term Paleolithic?
Answer:
The term Paleolithic is derived from the Greek terms Palaios meaning ancient and Lithos meaning stone. Archaeologists refer to the period between 2.5mya and 9000 years ago as the Paleolithic or the old stone age in Europe. Stone tools were used first dated to 2.5mya and agriculture began dated to 9000 years ago.

From the Beginning of Time Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
When did the earliest form of humans evolve and where? Why are there opposing views about the time period of evolution of the earliest form of human^, the ways of their obtaining food, certain changes in physical features, etc.?
Answer:
Human fossils, stone tools, artifacts, and paintings are the only source of information regarding the beginning of human existence. It has been estimated on the basis of these sources of information that the earliest form of humans had evolved from chimpanzees in Africa. Different sites were excavated under the supervision of archaeologists in Africa. These were –

1. Bahr el Ghazal, Chad
2. Hadar and Omo in Ethiopia,
3. Laetoli, Tanzania
4. Allia Bay and Kanapoi in Kenya and
5. Lothagam in Kenya.

The fossils found in Lothagam (Kenya) are dated to 5.6mya. On the basis of this information, it has been estimated that the earliest human form would have evolved in 5.6million years ago. Excavation of sites started in the year 1859 when Charles Darwin’s works – “On The Origin Of Species” got published. It had clarified the evolution of humans from animals a long time ago and it was not at all God’s specific creation.

The gradual process of evolution started as early as 24 mya from the old world monkeys of Asia and Africa. They were called Primates.

Hominids (comprising gibbons, Asian orang-utan, and African apes) evolved during 24mya. Hominids (early humans) evolved far back 6.4mya named as family. Australopithecus evolved from hominids 5.6mya and named Genus. Then there evolved Homo which took certain physical changes in three stages i.e.; Habilis, Erectus, and archaic sapiens. Finally, dated to 0.19 – 0.16mya, the sapiens or modern-looking humans came into existence.

Reason for Controversy- An investigation on primal forms of humans started in 1859 with the publication of Darwin’s book. Till then, nothing was done as the man had been considered specific creation. of god. Hence, it is usual to construct divergent views on several aspects relating to the evolution of human forms. The fossil of the earliest human was discovered on 17th July 1959 at Olduvai George in Tanzania by Mary and L.S.B. Leakey. Maximum information was thus, gathered from the human fossils found there. There are divergent views on the integration of the genus Australopithecus from Africa to Europe and Asia.

This genus was of an earlier time than Homo habilis but there is sufficient resemblance in two. Homo erectus resembles Homo sapiens and it was found both in Africa and Asia. On the V basis of that resemblance, some scholars confirm their migration from Africa to Asia while some others argue that Homo erectus did not leave Africa until one million years ago. They assume it automatic change in archaic forms of Homo sapiens after 0.5mya. Again, we see divergent views about the origin of modem humans (i.e. Homo sapiens sapiens). Some scholars say its evolution at one place i.e. Africa while some others say its simultaneous origin in several countries i.e. Africa, Asia, and Europe.

In a nutshell, we would like to state that owing to the most ancient period when the evolution process of humans started, the different missions of archaeologists to investigate about past history of humans, certain study manners on the fossils, artifacts, tools, and many other diverse pieces of evidence gathered by them are the causes for divergent views on each aspect of the earliest human societies. However, it remains to state that proper analysis has been made and a generalized view is supported in the process. The generalization of views finalliy leads us to the facts about the earliest human forms. Hence, divergen1 views are all possible while working out the things of so longer past

Here we are providing Class 11 Geography Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 7 Natural Hazards and Disasters. Important Questions for Class 11 Geography are the best resource for students which helps in class 11 board exams.

Important Questions for Class 11 Geography Chapter 7 Natural Hazards and Disasters

Natural Hazards and Disasters Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What do you mean by disaster?
Answer:
Disaster is a calamity, tragedy, or consequence of hazards.

Question 2.
Name some common natural hazards.
Answer:
Some common natural hazards are volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, droughts, floods, cyclones arid soil erosion.

Question 3.
What is a catastrophe?
Answer:
A sudden or widespread disaster is known as a catastrophe.

Question 4.
What are the causes of human-induced hazards?
Answer:
The human-induced hazards are caused by human activities such as a nuclear explosion, fire, industrial, etc.

Question 5.
What is the use of the Richter scale?
Answer:
It is used to measure the seismic energy radiated by an earthquake.

Question 6.
How are the earthquakes of non-tectonic origin caused?
Answer:
By volcanic eruptions, rock-bursts, subsidence in mines, impounding of reservoirs, etc.

Question 7.
Name the factors on which the intensity of storm waves of a cyclone depends?
Answer:
The intensity of storm waves depends on the wind, speed, pressure gradient, topography, and profile of the coastline.

Question 8.
How does flood occur?
Answer:
The flood occurs when a river overflows its banks and spreads out over the plains.

Question 9.
Which months experience the maximum number of storms in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea?
Answer:
October and November.

Question 10.
What is a flash flood?
Answer:
It is a sudden violent flood caused by exceptionally heavy rain in a normally dry valley in a semi-arid area.

Question 11.
What is the main cause of drought?
Answer:
The inadequate and uneven distribution of rainfall.

Question 12.
Identify two forms of landslides.
Answer:
Translational and rotational.

Question 13.
What does ‘MB’ stand for?
Answer:
Mb stands for millibar, the unit of measurement for pressure.

Question 14.
What are avalanches?
Answer:
A large mass of snow mixed with earth, stones, and ice loosened from a mountainside and drawn swiftly by gravity to the valley is called avalanches.

Question 15.
Which of the cyclones is more destructive?
Answer:
A tropical cyclone is more destructive.

Question 16.
Name three states which are affected by cyclones.
Answer:
Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.

Question 17.
What is the velocity of a cyclone and its normal duration?
Answer:
20 km per hour.

Question 18.
To which theory the earthquake is related?
Answer:
Plate tectonics.

Question 19.
How much area in India is drought-prone?
Answer:
19%.

Question 20.
What is a landslide?
Answer:
It is the rapid sliding of large masses of bed rocks or regoliths.

Question 21.
What defines the Disaster Management Bill 2005?
Answer:
It defines a disaster as a catastrophe, mishap, calamity, or grave occurrence affecting any area arising from man-made causes.

Question 22.
Name the different types of droughts in India.
Answer:
Four types of droughts: Meteorological, Agricultural, Hydrological and Ecological droughts.

Question 23.
In India which state is flooded during winter?
Answer:
Tamil Nadu coast.

Question 24.
What is ‘storm surge’?
Answer:
The severe cyclonic storms with an average speed of 180 km/h result in a sudden rise in the sea level known as storm surge.

Question 25.
What type of disasters are caused by cyclones?
Answer:
Earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions,

Natural Hazards and Disasters Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What is an earthquake and what is its intensity?
Answer:
An earthquake is the sudden movement of the crust of the earth resulting in tremors and vibrations. Like magnitude, the intensity is also one of the ways to measure the strength of an earthquake. Intensity relates to the force of an earthquake. It is the measure of the damage caused by the earthquake.

Question 2.
Name a high and very high-risk seismic area of India.
Answer:
From the earthquake point of view, the high-risk areas are the Ganga plains and western Rajasthan, whereas the very high-risk areas are the Himalayan mountain, north-eastern India, Kachchh, west coast around Ratnagiri and Andaman and Nicobar islands.

Question 3.
What are the basic requirements for the formation of a cyclone?
Answer:
The following are the basic requirements for the formation of a cyclone:

1. The temperature of the oceanic surface over 26°C.
2. The appearance of a closed isobar.
3. Pressure dropping below 1000 Mb.
4. Areas of circular movement, first spreading to a radius of 30-50km., then increasing gradually to 100-200 km. and even to 1000 km.
5. Verticallythewindspeedfirstrisingtoaheightof6km., then much higher.

Question 4.
What is the velocity of a cyclone and its normal duration?
Answer:
The speed of movement of a cyclone per unit of time is called its velocity. The cyclones move at an average velocity of about 20 km. per hour. Its normal duration is five to seven days.

Question 5.
Mention the flood-prone areas of India.
Answer:
The flood-prone areas of India include the Ganga basin covering Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal, the Brahmaputra basin in Assam, and the Baitarni, the Brahmani and Subarnrekha basins of Orissa.

Fig.7.3 ‘Flood-prone areas of India’

Question 6.
Name two human activities that cause a flood in India.
Answer:
These are the two factors that increase the incidence of a flood.

1. Deforestation,
2. Drainage congestion (caused by the badly planned construction of bridges, roads, railway tracks, and other developmental activities).

Question 7.
What are the consequences of landslides on humans?
Answer:
There are the following consequences of landslides:

1. Damage to planted vegetation and crops.
2. Disruption of communication due to the blocking of roads and rivers.
3. Destruction of human settlements over slopes and loss of human life.

Question 8.
What is disaster management?
Answer:
The term disaster management includes all aspects of prevention and protection measures, preparedness, and organization of relief operations for mitigating the impact of disasters on human beings and socio-economic aspects of the disaster-prone area.

Question 9.
How embankments worsen the problem of a flood?
Answer:
The construction of embankments, the river water spreads out the stream and flows oven, it worsens the problem of a flood. The width of the river stream becomes narrow and a flood occurs.

Question 10.
What are the major hazards that occur in India?
Answer:
Drought, floods, cyclones, landslides, and earthquakes are some of the major hazards which occur in India. These natural hazards or disasters are the results of sudden earth movements that change the face of the earth in a short period causing heavy loss of life and property.

Question 11.
What do you understand by ‘tsunami’?
Answer:
‘Tsunami’ is a series of waves generates under the body of water by an impulsive disturbance that vertically displaces the water column. Earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, and the impact of cosmic bodies like asteroids can generate a tsunami.

Question 12.
Define solifluction.
Answer:
Solifluction is the slow movement of rock debris, saturated with water and not confined to definite demands, down a slope under the force of gravity. It occurs particularly when thawing releases such surface deposits while the underlying layers are still frozen. The term is usually applied to saturated deposits.

Question 13.
Define pressure gradient.
Answer:
The amount of change in atmospheric pressure between two points is called the pressure gradient. It is indicated by the distance apart on a level surface of the isobar. Closely spaced isobars indicate a steep gradient and those widely spread represent gentle gradients.

Question 14.
Why north bank tributaries of the Brahmaputra river create more floods than those of the south bank?
Answer:
It is because the northern tributaries have steep slopes, shallow and braided channels, and coarse sandy beds; they carry a heavy silt charge and have a tendency to bring fresh floods. The south bank tributaries, on the other hand, have comparatively flatter gradients and deeper channels, they are clayey and have more stable banks and beds.

Natural Hazards and Disasters Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Discuss the three components of the impact phase of disaster management.
Answer:
The term disaster management includes all aspects of preventive and perspective measures, preparedness, and organization of relief operations for mitigation of the impact of the disaster on human beings and socio-economic aspects of the disaster-prone areas.-The whole process of disaster management can be divided into three phases, impact phase, rehabilitation and reconstruction phase, and integrated large term development and preparative phase.

The impact phase contains three components – forecasting of disaster, close monitoring of agents causing disasters, and management activities after the disaster has occurred. As far as forecasting of disaster is concerned, flood forecasting can be done by studying rainfall in the catchment area. The approach of cyclones can be tracked and monitored by satellites. Based on these details, early warning and evacuation efforts may be made.

Close monitoring of agents responsible for disaster can help the deployment of terms to help evacuation and supply of food clothing and drinking water. Disaster leaves a trail of death and destruction. This will require medical care and the help of the affected people. Under the long-term development phase, preventive and precautionary measures of various kinds should be chalked out.

Question 2.
What should people do and don’t do in an area going to be hit by a cyclone?
Answer:
In order to draw the attention of the people of the world, the UNESCO observed International Decade for natural disaster Reduction during 1990-2000. Along with other nations of the world, India observed World Disaster Reduction Day in October during the decade. Do’s and Don’ts for the people in cyclone-hit areas, which were issued by the Government of India are as follows:

1. Listen to the radio for advance information and advice. Allow a considerable margin for safety.
2. When the storm force winds or severe gales are forecast for your area: store or secure loose boards, corrugated iron, rubbish lines, or anything else that could become dangerous; tape up large windows to prevent them from shattering; and move to the nearest shelter or evacuate the area if this is ordered by the ‘ appropriate government agency.
3. When the storm hits it is advisable: to stay indoors and take shelter in the strongest part of your house; listen to the radio and follow instructions; open windows on the sheltered side of the house if the roof begins to lift; find shelter if you are caught out in the open, and do not go outside during a lull in the storm.

Question 3.
Describe the flood in India as a disaster. Write an essay on floods as a disaster.
Answer:
Floods are a major cause of human misery in India every year. Out of a number of natural disasters that the country has experienced, floods are the most important ones. India is the most flood-affected country in the world next to Bangladesh. Twenty percent of the global deaths caused by floods in the world are in India.

In spite of the fact that floods are a natural disaster, it often turns out to be a social disaster as the people who are severely affected are generally the poor because they live on the periphery of the human habitat. The annual flood-affected population has arisen faster than the growth of India’s population. The flood-affected area and damages have also increased recently; the reason for this increase is the encroachment of flood plain by the people.

The most flood-prone basins in the country are those of the Ganga-in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal, the Brahmaputra in Assam, and the Batumi, the Brahmani, and the Subarnrekha basins in Orissa. Sometimes floods occur also in Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana, and Gujarat.

Flood Control – Floods are not new in India. The practice of building flood protection embankments along rivers is an ancient one. We had flood protection embankments on the Godavari, Krishna, and the Kaveri deltas and in the Indo-Ganga plain.

The nationwide flood protection programs, however, began only after independence. At the time of independence in 1947, India had some 5280 km. of embankments along different rivers. Of this 3500 km. were in the Sundarbans in the West Bengal and 1209 km. along the Mahanadi in Orissa. This provided protection to about 3 million hectares of land.

In 1954 a spate of severe floods came. Enormous devastation was caused in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, and Assam. Long term programs for the construction of dams and embankments were drawn. Central and state flood control boards were set up. In spite of various measures taken up to minimize the fury of floods, they are still a regular feature in the Ganga and the Brahmaputra basin.

Reducing Impact of Flood-The building of embankments was the only way floods could be controlled in the forties.

Fig.7.3: “Heavily embankment areas of India’

The dams and reservoirs were considered useful to control runoff water and reduce flooding. Now there are several other measures to reduce the severity of the flood. The felling of trees and deforestation on mountain slopes and in catchment areas need control. Weather forecast and flood warning feature is a regular feature.

Question 4.
What is a tsunami? How it occurs and what are its consequences? Describe in detail.
Answer:
A tsunami is a series of waves generated in the body of water by an impulsive disturbance that vertically displaces the water column. Earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, and even the impact of cosmic bodies such as asteroids can generate a tsunami. When the Indian plate in the north-east gets locked with the Eurasian plate, it creates high stress, and the accumulation of high energy causes an earthquake.

Cause – Nomially the seismic waves cause only one instantaneous vertical wave but after the initial disturbance, a series of after waves are created in the water that oscillates between the high crest and low trough in order to restore the water level. The speed of waves in the ocean depends upon the depth of water. It is more in shallow water than at the ocean depth.

Consequences – The impact of the tsunami is less over the ocean and more near the coast where they cause large scale devastation. Therefore, a ship at sea is not much affected by tsunamis. The tsunami wave raises the ship only one meter because over deep water tsunami has a very long wavelength and limited wave height. Over shallow water, tsunami causes large-scale destruction along the shores, here wavelength gets reduced and height can be up to 15 meters.

• After reaching the coast they release enormous energy and destroy the port cities and towns, structures, buildings, and other settlements.
• The loss of property’ and life by the tsunami is much higher as compared to other natural hazards in the coastal areas.

Mitigation steps – It is difficult to mitigate the hazards caused by the tsunami because of the fact that losses are on a much large scale.

Question 5.
What is an earthquake? Discuss the causes and consequences of an earthquake.
Answer:
An earthquake is a sudden movement of the crust of the earth. An earthquake occurs when the Indian plate gets locked up with a Eurasian plate, high stress is developed which results in the release of high energy. It is a sudden shaking of the crust which results in tremors and vibrations.

Causes – The following are the causes of earthquakes:

1. Volcanic eruption
2. Tectonic causes
3. Elasticity of rocks
4. Local causes

Consequences –

1. If the intensity of an earthquake is more than 6 on the Richter scale, there is a loss of life and property on a large scale.
2. In the young fold mountains, the earthquake leads to cracks in the rocks and causes landslides.
3. Due to earthquake, there are short circuits of electrical wires which damage and blast the equipment.
4. Usually, earthquakes lead to distortion and displacement of the surface rocks which block the flow of the river coming in the ways.

Here we are providing Class 11 History Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 6 The Three Orders. Class 11 History Important Questions with Answers are the best resource for students which helps in class 11 board exams.

Class 11 History Chapter 6 Important Extra Questions The Three Orders

The Three Orders Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What were three orders in European Communities?
Answer:
These were like limits of administration of the government. There were social categories-

1. Christian Priest,
2. nobility and
3. peasants under the feudal system of governance.

Question 2.
What was the achievement of Marc Bloch?
Answer:
He had composed a book on “The Feudal Society”. Here he gives a detailed account of social relations, hierarchies, land management, and culture of the French society between 900 and 1300 CE.

Question 3.
How did European historians become successful in writing the histories of regions even that of individual villages?
Answer:
It would possible because of the availability of a number of documents, details of landowners’ life, prices, and legal cases. Eg. Churches records of births, marriages, and deaths.

Question 4.
What do you understand by the medieval era?
Answer:
It is the period between the fifth and the fifteenth century i.e. history of above 1000 ( a millennium) years.

Question 5.
What is a Feudalism?
Answer:
This German word had been used by historians to describe ‘ the economic, legal, political and social relationship that existed in Europe in the medieval era.

Question 6.
Why did the social organization was centered on the control of land in Europe?
Answer:

1. There was a lack of any integrated political force.
2. Continuous military conflict was witnessed.
3. Fencing became important in order to protect one’s land.

Question 7.
What features the feudal system had derived from the past?
Answer:
These were-

1. Traditions descended from the Roman empire and
2. Customs observed by Germans.

Question 8.
What was the role of Christianity in the feudal system of society in Europe?
Answer:

1. It was the religion when had survived the collapse of Rome.
2. It was pervaded throughout Europe.

On this basis, a priest (Clergy) was the first order of feudal society in Europe. Pope was the supreme head of the Catholic Church and Christians in Europe were guided by Bishops and clergies. The church was the law-making body and independent from the king.

Question 9.
What is the meaning of feudalism from an economic angle?
Answer:
It was based on the relationship between lords and peasants.

Lords were the nobles with large estates, joined by the whole. Peasants were owners of smallholdings and they had to cultivate the land owned by their lords and military protection was given to them in exchange for such services to the lords.

Question 10.
How can you say that feudalism had covered social and political aspects of life also?
Answer:
Social aspect-Render services to lords in order to receive military protection.

Political aspect-Peasants were subordinated to judicial provisions made by lords.

Question 11.
Describe the typography of Gaul or France.
Answer:
It was a province of the Roman empire. It had two coastlines, mountain ranges/long rivers, forests, and large tracts of plains.

Question 12.
Why was Gaul renamed as France?
Answer:
On the decline of the Roman empire, Franks, a German tribe renamed it France for their tribe name being Franks.

Question 13.
Where was the island of England-Scotland located?
Answer:
It was located across a narrow channel in Normandy province of the French empire.

Question 14.
What was the source of origin of the three orders?
Answer:
It was the speech of a bishop which stated that here below, some pray, others fight, still others work i.e. the elegy, the nobility, and the peasantry.

Question 15.
Mention the essence of an article composed by Abbess Hildegard of Bingen in the twelfth century?
Answer:
She had mentioned that as cows, donkeys, sheep, goats have certain different characteristics and cannot be put in a single enclosure, human being similarly; require different settings in society.

Question 16.
What was the first order?
Answer:
As the Catholic Church was the law-making body in the feudal system, Pope was the head of the western church in Rome. Bishops and Clerics used to guide the Christians in Europe therefore; they were the first order in feudal society.

Question 17.
What were the criteria for the eligibility of a priest?
Answer:

1. He should be physically and mentally sound.
2. He should neither be a woman nor a peasant.
3. He will observe celibacy throughout life.

Question 18.
What was the posture while offering pray at the church?
Answer:
The devotee would kneel (sit on the knee, bent), Hands clasped and head bowed.

Question 19.
Why was the nobility called lord?
Answer:
It was a replica or copy of the formality in the Church. It was meant by the one who provides bread.

Question 20.
Who were the monks?
Answer:
These were the groups of deeply religious people who choose to live isolated lives. Their community was Abbey or monastery.

Question 21.
Whether there were conditions of eligibility for the monks?
Answer:
Yes, these conditions were-

1. He would take vows to remain in the abbey for the rest of his life.
2. He would spend this time in prayer, study, and manual labor.
3. Women and men both were eligible to become nuns and monks respectively.
4. They i.e. monks and nuns would pass their lives in celibacy.

Question 22.
Why are monasteries called Benedictine monasteries?
Answer:
The first monastery was established by St. Benedict of Italy in 529 CE. Hence, these are so addressed.

Question 23.
How many chapters of rules were composed and abide by monks in Benedictine monasteries?
Answer:
These were with 73 chapters. Chapter 48 states that the monastery should be laid out in such a way that all necessities be found within its bounds i.e. water, milk, garden, and workshops.

Question 24.
How can you say that corruption had gripped the monasteries?
Answer:

1. The poem “Piers Plowman” by the poet Langland of England.
2. Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales-are the sources that confirm this fact of growing corruption in monasteries.

Question 25.
Who were the people or section of society put under second-order?
Answer:
It was nobility or the large estate owners. This section of society was the vassal of the king. Under a mutual promise, the king was accepted as seigneur or lord by the nobility and they would remain loyal to the king.

Question 26.
What was the mutual promise between lord and nobility?
Answer:

1. The vassal (nobility) and the king (lord) would do the exchange of vows taken on the Bible in a Church.
2. The vassal (nobility) would be given a-written charter or a clod of earth as a symbol of the land (estate).

Question 27.
What were the privileges with the nobility or the second-order?
Answer:

1. Absolute control over the property in perpetuity.
2. Conferred with rights to raise troops (feudal levies)
3. Right to own court of justice for disposal of disputes, duels, among peasants.
4. Right to coin this other money.

Question 28.
What were the major features of the estate owned by nobility?
Answer:

1. A manor,
2. private fields and pastures,
3. homes and fields of tenant-peasants.

Question 29.
Whether the nobles cultivate their private fields themselves?
Answer:
No, these also will be cultivated by the tenant-peasants. The peasants would also act as infantry if any battle is waged there.

Question 30.
Describe a small and a large estate?
Answer:
In a small estate, there were a dozen families while in a large estate, more than fifty families apart from manor residents were living. There were fields, meadows, pastures, forest-land in an estate with Church and a castle for defense.

Question 31.
Whether craftsmen besides tenant-peasants were also accommodated in an estate?
Answer:
Yes, there were families of carpenters, blacksmiths, etc. craftsmen apart from the peasants.

Question 32.
Whether families (women and children) dwelling in an estate were also engaged with the work?
Answer:
Yes, the women would spin and weave cloth and children would work in the lord’s wine-presses.

Question 33.
Do you say the manorial estate was self-sufficient?
Answer:
No, the items like salt, millstone, metalware, furniture, musical instruments, and ornaments were obtained from outside sources.

Question 34.
Why were Knights accommodated under an award of a fief in memorial estates?
Answer:
It was because-

1. Peasants as soldiers were inefficient to warcraft.
2. Internal wars in Europe were fought regularly.

Question 35.
What was Fief?
Answer:
It was a smaller estate measuring between 1,000 and 2,000 acres awarded by the lord of a manorial estate i.e. nobleman. It was consisting of structures like a house for the knight and his family, a church, houses for dependents, a water mill, and a wine-press.

Question 36.
What services promised by the knights to their lords (noblemen)?
Answer:

1. He will pay a fixed amount periodically as agreed to in the form of a fee to his lord.
2. He will fight for him with his soldiers in the war.
3. He will remain loyal foremost to his own lord if owing to certain necessities, he may serve under more than one lord.

Question 37.
What was the third order of feudal society in Europe?
Answer:
It was consisting of two kinds of peasants viz. some were owning their land while the other was serf or slave who had to cultivate lord’s land.

Question 38.
Describe the works done by serfs.
Answer:

1. Cultivate the fields that belonged to the lord but assigned to them from which they were given a minimal share of produce.
2. Cultivate the fields that belonged exclusively to the lord for which no wage was given.
3. Do all other works as desired from time to time by the lord but all without wage (Begar).

Question 39.
How do you think England would have so named?
Answer:
The Angles and Saxons tribes of Central Europe settled here hence, the initial “Angle-land” subsequently, called England.

Question 40.
With what even the feudalism had developed in England?
Answer:
It was the eleventh century when the Duke of Normandy, William crossed the English channel with the army and occupied England after defeating the Saxon king there.

Question 41.
Whether agriculture was the mainstay at Europe’s economy? If not why?
Answer:
No, the agricultural land was limited during the fifth to tenth centuries. Entire Europe was covered with dense forests. The intense cold climate was the next barrier to agriculture operations because prolonged winter had shortened the growing season for crops.

Question 42.
Describe primitive manners of agricultural operations?
Answer:

1. Wooden plow used,
2. bullock was the only source for plowing,
3. manpower was used for almost and in all operations,
4. fields had to be dug by hand once in four years because wooden plow was unable to fully draw out the natural productivity of the soil.

Question 43.
What was the primitive crop rotation?
Answer:
The land was divided in half and one field was planted, in autumn while the other field was left fallow. Similarly, rye was grown in the first year’s fallow field but the other was left fallow.

Question 44.
Describe some features of new agricultural technology?
Answer:

1. Heavy iron-tipped plows and moldboards were used,
2. Shoulder-harness of bullock came into use,
3. Shod were fitted with horses to prevent their foot decay,
4. Water and canal powered mills were set-ups,
5. Three field system of land-use followed,
6. Peas and beans were given preference,
7. Arable land was used for growing crops.

Question 45.
What changes were brought about by the increased use of money in transactions?
Answer:

1. Lords asked rent to be paid in cash.
2. Peasants preferred selling their crops to the traders.
3. Inflation took place in times of poor harvests.

Question 46.
What was the fourth-order in the feudal society of Europe?
Answer:
A new type of economic organization consisting of merchants, traders, craftsmen guilds, etc. was the fourth-order of that society. In brief, we can state that towns and towns’ people were the fourth-order.

Question 47.
Which three areas were developed with the expansion in agriculture?
Answer:
These were-

1. Population,
2. trade and
3. towns.

Question 48.
What were the main items of trading in the eleventh century?
Answer:
These were-Fur, tin, hawks, and cloth.

Question 49.
Who had contributed to the construction of Cathedral towns?
Answer:
These were large churches and rich merchants contributed to their construction. Similarly, different groups of people contributed with their own labor, material, or money.

Question 50.
What factors are attributed to the crisis of the fourteenth century?
Answer:
These factors were-

1. Change in climate from hot to cold summers,
2. Shortage of metal money due to a shortfall in the output of silver mines in Austria and Serbia.
3. Bubonic plague spread and it took a toll on twenty percent of the total populace in Europe.

Question 51.
What consequences were seen of the catastrophe in the form of bubonic plague?
Answer:

1. A number of people were dislocated,
2. Depopulation resulted in a major shortage of labor,
3. imbalances created between agriculture and manufacture,
4. prices plummeted for agricultural products including food grains.

Question 52.
What were the m&in features of the so-called new-monarchy?
Answer:

1. These were monarchy of the absolutist ruler.,
2. A standing army was organized,
3. There was permanent bureaucracy,
4. the national taxation system was implemented.

Question 53.
What social changes had taken way to the growth of the monarchy-feudal system?
Answer:

1. Owing to the catastrophe of bubonic plague, they set a condition of de-population which gradually shattered the feudal system,
2. The resultant slow pace of economic growth had given the opportunity to kings to increase their control,
3. Strong infantry equipped with guns and siege artillery, assisted the kings to establish their monarchy.

Question 54.
Mention the time tag of the new monarchy ruled in France, Spain, and England.
Answer:
It was the period between 1461-1559 in France, 1474-1556 in Spain, and 1485-1547 in England.

Question 55.
What problems the monarchy did face in course of the consolidation of its powers?
Answer:
It was the problem of rebellion by the erstwhile nobility particularly on the question of taxation. Royal dominance had grossly annoyed them and there were four rebellions took place in 1497,1536, 1547, and 1553 respectively.

The Three Orders Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What other functions apart from cultivating their own land were assigned with the peasants?
Answer:

1. To render military service at least forty days every year.
2. To work without wage in the fields owned by the lord at least three days a week. This labor was heated as rent for self-owned land.

To dig ditches, gather firewood, build fences, and repair roads and buildings.

To engage women and children in works like spinning, weaning clothes, making candles, and press grapes to prepare wine for the lord.

Question 2.
Imagine the background for the origin of Feudalism in Europe?
Answer:
We have come to know that the eastern part of the Roman empire was gradually declined and fell into pieces under a number of tribes that came down from the north. In the western part of that empire comprising Portugal, Spain, Corsica, Sardinia, Italy, Austria, German States, Normandy, Gaul (France), Burgundy, etc. in the north of the Mediterranean, Christianity made its hold and saved it from ruination. It had become the official religion of the Roman Empire from the fourth century.

It is plausible to mention that religion always is felt on a nerve by human beings. Being its scope infinitesimal, a few people shrewd in society or known to manage the mass had always resorted to the most sensitive issue of religion and established social organizations. History is evident of such phenomenon of religion. A similar thing, we can see in the regeneration and organization of society under the feudal system during the fifth to fifteen century CE.

The three orders are the symbol of the three-prong management of the masses. It was knitted by the church whose head was Pope of Rome with Bishops and Clerics in Europe. Pope’s orders were called Papal-bull and followed by the masses. It was the first order, the second order was nobility including the king, and the third-order was the peasants.

Conclusion-Thus, on the above grounds, we can state that it was the phenomenon of the Church which had developed the practice of vassalage and established a feudal system.

Question 3.
Discuss the practice of vassalage under three orders?
Answer:
This practice was earlier followed by Germans in which Franks were also a tribe. Hence, it is attributed to brought in by the Franks, a Germanic tribe.

The noble i.e. second order was vassals c (the king and peasants were vassals of the landowners. The first order i.e. the church with its network of Bishops, Clerics, monks, etc. proliferated in monasteries cathedrals were independent of the king i.e. Seigneur (lord) of the nobility and actual law-making power was in its hands. The harangues delivered by the Abbey and Abbess including priests fixed an idea to the public that as cows, donkeys, sheep, goats require distinct enclosures/stables, the same way, division of society in people who pray, the others who fight, and a majority of others who possess the ability to act upon.

Thus, as the king was lord to nobility, the nobility was the lord to the peasants. Land owning was the essence of such arrangement therefore, the third-order was called peasants otherwise; they were no better than slaves to the manor and his manorial estate. Thus, two orders in feudal society in another sense were oppressor and the third was oppressed.

Question 4.
Whether you see manual estates like the private states in India during the British regime? Justify your answer.
Answer:
It has been truly stated that the history of every man, tribe, clan, etc. has a long-lasting impact because it becomes instincts and thus, repeated irrespective of the place, time, and circumstances. Britishers were from England and England was the part of Europe hence, the same feudal compositions, they made ready to rule India. Had they not acquired the instincts of Europe, they should have neither ruled India by dividing it into two parts i.e. British India and Princely states.

We observe similarities in both cases. The feudal system in Europe was of three orders i.e. Priest, nobility, and peasants. In India, during the British regime; it was the crown, the company, and the masses. As nobility was owned large estates, the governors-general were representatives to the British crown in India and Common people were as third-order while the princely states were pari-passu to the second-order in the feudal society of Europe i.e. Peasants.

Question 5.
Describe the major features of a manorial estate and tell if each estate you see similar to a kingdom.
Answer:
The manorial estate according to its feature was a kingdom in itself. We see here a manorial estate accommodating Church, Knights, families of manor or nobleman including more than fifty families and an area measuring several thousand acres.

Like a Kingdom, the manorial house was built in the middle as Hf its capital. A manor had employed on his fields, two kinds of peasants, some were free while some others were serfs. The women and children of these peasants were also engaged in works like spinning the thread and wearing fabric and press the grapes to prepare wine for the lord or manor.’There were blacksmiths and carpenters for maintenance of the lord’s implements and repair his weapons.

There were knights given accommodation and land measuring between 1000 and 2000 acres or more in order to fight in wars which had become a routine affair those days. The manor has absolute rights to charge rent- levies from the peasants by employing them in begar. He had absolute power to establish the judiciary in order to dispose of the petty disputes between peasants or his vassals. The estate was consisting of a consolidated region with meadows, pastures, forest-land, plains, rivers, reservoirs, churches, colonies, etc.

On the basis of the above, features and the powers conferred to the manor or nobleman in Europe exhibit that manorial estate was a smaller kingdom in itself with the exclusive judiciary and administrative powers.

Question 6.
Discuss examples of expected patterns of behavior between people of different social levels, in a medieval manor, a palace, and in a place of worship.
Answer:
(a) BahaviOur pattern in a medieval manor-The manor or the nobleman was an autocrat to the people housed in his estate. He never provided the children of peasants opportunity of schooling and education. Instead, they were exploited for pressing grapes and preparing wine for the manor. Similarly, women were also engaged in begar for spinning the thread and weaving cloth for the manor.

He has all monopoly in the estate. He used to charge fees from the Knights and military services against the fief awarded. Peasants were compelled to provide military services at least forty days in a year and do beggars three days a week. The manor had given this free service in the name of labor rent. The serfs were more oppressed than the peasants. There were a number of restraints and restrictions imposed on them.

(b) Behaviour pattern in a palace–Every person entering in the palace had to sit on knee bent, with hands clasped and head bowed.

The King was addressed as lord (i.e. God) or signer. A poem “Doon de Mayence” refers to the allegiance of the Knights as-“If my dear lord is slain, his fate I’ll share if he is hanged, then hang me by his side….”:

(c) Place of the worship-The church was the supreme power, feudal society of Europe. Church had its own laws independent of the king. Christians in Europe were guided by bishops and clerics. Women, serfs, and persons physically handicapped were not eligible to become a priest. The priest was not allowed to marry. The church has the right to collect “Thithe” viz a tax assessed as a one-tenth share of whatever the peasants produce in their field in a year. Bishops were luxurious people and awarded .with large estates. Feudal etiquette and ceremonies were followed in the church.

Conclusion-On the basis of the above behavior patterns, it can be stated that feudal organization of society was merely a facade of religion and assurance to provide protection from the localized wars to the masses, was nothing else but a device to exploit the third order by the Church as also by the nobility. We do not see educational institutions except a few classes on Christianity in churches. In brief, there were only two orders in feudal society i.e. A class of oppressors and another of the oppressed under one or other tactics.

Question 7.
“It is ignorance that generates fear of life and the man falls in a few shrewd hands for exploitation’. Do you agree with this statement? Justify your answer referring to the instinct of fear among common masses in Europe.
Answer:
While perusing the feudal society in Europe, the above statement appears all correct. Actually, this fact was known to the Church, the supreme authority in Christianity. The vassalage was the creation of Bishops and Cleries whose supreme head was the Pope of Rome. After going over the pains and atrocities inflicted on the peasants, we would like to state them not religious people but shrewd. In order to bag all luxuries in their favor as we see, bishops owned large estates and called religious nobility, they befooled the mass and kept them in cages as an instrument to produce the luxurious living of the Clerics.

We don’t see any efforts made by the lords for their subject except in monasteries, where only manner-how to sing prayers in church-was taught to the selected children of noblemen and not of the masses. Instead of doing this, all children in manorial estates were engaged on begar for preparation of wine for the lords. The priests and noblemen deliberately killed their childhood by their murderous instinct so that nobody could oppose the feudal system in the future and they should enjoy from one generation to another in perpetuity, the luxurious.

The ignorance imposed on people made them fearful and they realized wars made them frightened. If a man of average mind, sees the controls of a nobleman; he would have preferred living in a forest instead of the estate or die at the hands of invaders. That fear was thrust in their heart and being illiterate, they posed blind-faith on clerics and the lords. Thus, it was ignorance that compelled them to live a life worse than wild-animals.

Question 8.
What were the main factors for the crisis of the fourteenth century? Discuss.
Answer:
The major factor was that of change in the climate. By the end of the thirteenth century, the warm summers of the previous 300 years had given way to bitterly cold summers. The crop growing season was reduced by a month and it became difficult to grow crops on higher ground. Storms and oceanic flooding destroyed the major part of the fertile plains.

Result-The income from taxes was reduced.

The second factor was that of marginal utility on agricultural production because regular cropping had made the fertility of the soil marginal. Soil conservation was not taken care of, during two hundred years of regular farming. Meadows lost grasses and it reduced the number of cattle.

The third factor was that of unprecedented growth in population during the last two hundred years of farming.

Result-Over population but less agricultural production brought starving conditions between 1315 and 1317 coupled with massive deaths of cattle in the 1320s.

The fourth factor was the depletion of the silver stock in the mines of Austria and Serbia. This situation barred minting and coinage thereby loss of trade and commerce.

The fifth and the worst factor was the spread of the bubonic plague (Black Death) between 1347 and 1350.

Result-This catastrophe took a toll on 20 percent of the total population in Europe.

Conclusion-The degeneration of agricultural yield and de-population conditions provided the major cause for the destruction of feudal set-up in European society.

Question 9.
“Social unrest in Europe immediately after the crisis of the fourteenth century was an indication of certain political changes there”-Do you agree with this statement? Justify.
Answer:
Yes, this statement is all justified. The de-population caused by the catastrophe of the plague, changes in the environment, oceanic floodings, and shortage of metal money, proved an indication of certain political changes as the society at that juncture, took notice of the situation in its apparent form. The so-called lords suffered a price decline for food grains as millions of people have succumbed to the bubonic plague. Again, wages of laborers increased because of the short supply of man-power.

The lords gave-up the money contracts and revived labor services i.e. Begar. It was met with severe opposition by the better educated and more prosperous peasants. Their annoyance to the system has appeared in revolts of 1323, 1358, and 1381 in Flanders, France, and England respectively. It is true that revolutions were crushed but they again took a violent turn shortly. Thus, the peasants ensured that the feudal privileges of earlier days could not be reinvented.

Question 10.
Discuss how the new monarchy replaced the feudal set-up of European society?
Answer:
In this context, we would like to say that everything or action or arrangement has its climax and nothing is perpetual in this transitory world or in other words, nature. Like the birth, youth, old, and death stages of each organism, each set-up has to pass through different stages. Something similar had happened to the feudal society also. Christianity got its birth on fall of the Roman empire, it became stronger or youth when the church, monasteries, Cathedrals were built, and a network of three orders made successfully by the Catholic church and had to die with the crisis of the fourteenth century, i.e. change in environment, depletion of gold and silver stock, marginal fertility of the soil and spread of bubonic plague all over Europe.

These situations made feudal set-up tougher to maintain as starving conditions had emerged. It brought revolts of peasants in and the European Kings began to strengthen their military and financial power. The Kings have duly understood the situation and took * immediately these changes. These new Kings were called new monarch by the historian because they were no more feudal lords. These were autocratic absolutist rulers. Louis XI of France, Maximilian of Austria, leary VII of England, and Isabelle and Ferdinand of Spain were these autocratic rulers.

Measures opted by new monarchs-

1. Organization of standing armies on modern lines,
2. Permanent bureaucracy in place of nobility and manors,
3. Formation of national policy for taxation and
4. exploration of new’ lands outside Europe.

These rulers had ruled out the earlier system of feudal levies and introduced professionally trained infantry equipped with guns and siege artillery under their direct control. The nobility first resisted monarchy through rebellions but became loyal subsequently, when they were badly defeated. They were given permanent positions by the new monarchs.

Question 11.
Following are the events of the eleventh to fourteenth Centuries. Read them and connect them into a narrative account.

1066	Normans defeat Anglo-Saxons and Conquer England.
1100	onwards Cathedrals being built in France
1315-17	The great famine in Europe.
1347-50	Black Death.
1338-1461	Hundred Years War between England and France.
1381	Peasants’ revolts

Answer:
1. Norman defeated Anglo-Saxons and conquered England-Normandy was a port town in Gaul (France). William was the Duke of that province. He crossed the English Channel with an army and defeated the Saxon King of England. These two were the tribes of Central Europe and settled in England in the sixth century. “Angle’s land” was later-on called England. Here from, started the history of England. After this event, France and England fought a number of battles.

2. Cathedral being built in France-Up to that time, each craft or industry was organized into the guild (i.e. An Association), new trade routes with West Asia (China, Japan, Afghanistan) were developed, and a number of towns grew’ and trade expanded continuously.

Owing to the prosperous conditions of Europe in trade, agriculture, craftsmanship, etc., rich merchants began contributing huge amounts regularly to the churches. It inspired the religious community (monasteries) to start the construction of Cathedrals. As crafts guild were easily available for supply of craftsmen, plans of construction wet easily implemented. People from different groups of society contribute their labor, materials, or money in France for the construction of Cathedrals. Their construction took a number of years to complete and became centers of pilgrimage. Owing to this, small towns were developed around them.

3. Great Famine in Europe-Famine has direct nexus with the sudden decline in production of foodgrains and certain other allied disturbances. Famine in Europe caused the starvation of the masses owing to the presence of the following factors-
1. Sudden change in climate after a lapse of 300 years. It reduced the seasons for growing crops by a month hence, foodgrain production became a herculean task. Again, the land tilled continuously for more 4 than two hundred years had lost utility and became marginal. Soil conservation techniques were not approved by Europeans.

2. Owing to bumper production during the last 300 years, the pace of population growth remained unchecked. Thus, plummeting foodgrain production and an ever-increasing population had hard hit the consumption trend. Allied factors of famine were
(a) depletion of silver stock in mines,
(b) loss of trade and commerce,
(c) the spread of plague and
(d) social unrest.

4. Black Death –
This catastrophe was brought by bubonic plague arrived with mice from distant countries while carrying goods on ships. It took a toll of 20 percent of the people of the whole of Europe with 40 percent loss of lives in some places. Its devastating impact can be guessed from the fact that Europe with 73 million population in 1300 CE reduced to 45 million in 1400 CE. An Italian author, Giovanni Boccaccio states-“They sickened by the thousands daily, and died unattended and without help. Many died in the open street, others dying in their houses, made it known by the stench of their rotting bodies”.

5. Hundred Years war between England and France-In the map of Western Europe, one can observe both countries fall at the – banks of the English Channel. North sea falls at the east of England and attire North of France. The Western part of both countries is covered by the sea. The history states that Scandinavian merchants were sailing ‘ south from the North sea to exchange furs and hunting-hawks for cloth and English traders sold them tin. We also know that the Duke of Normandy in France had crossed the English Channel with an army and defeated the Saxon King of England in the eleventh century.

The abovesaid topography, trade, and war campaigns had made staunch rival, the people of England and France to each-other. This rivalry or enmity ran continuously at least one hundred years after the event, England was defeated by France.

6. Peasants’ revolts-Atrocities of nobility on peasants took a spurt in the circumstances when bubonic plague took tall of several million people, climate took to change, the fertility of soil decayed due to longer land-use, and famine failed. They tried to give up the money contracts, they had entered into earlier and revive labor services. It was an intolerable position hence, peasants’ revolt took place in Flanders in 1323, in France in 1358, and in England in 1381. These revolts were mercilessly crushed but the peasants ensured that the feudal privileges of earlier days could not be reinvented.

Question 12.
Distinguish between Primitive land-use and the New Agriculture Technology.
Answer:

Primitive Land Use	New Agricultural Technology
1. Wooden plow was used.	1. Heavy iron-tipped plow and moldboards were brought into use.
2. Agriculture was labor-intensive and mostly they had to dig the fields bÿ hand.	2. Agriculture was less labor-intensive as compared to the primitive land use.
3. Animals were neck-harnessed.	3. Animals were shoulder harnessed.
4. Under crop rotation, the Land was divided in half i.e. winter wheat sown in one field while the other was left fallow.	4. Three field system was adopted. viz, two out of three fields were regular for two years i.e. wheat or rye in autumn and the second field for growing peas, beans and the third was left fallow.
5. Agricultural production declined.	5. Yield was increased and thus, food availability doubled.

Question 13. Do you think New towns and towns’ people can be considered as a fourth-order? Explain.
Answer:
Yes, it was really considered as a fourth-order in the feudal set¬up of European society on the following grounds-

1. Towns were developed initially with the fair and small market centers as a result of expansion and increase of agricultural production.
2. The social and political conditions of the town were absolutely distinct and different from the former three orders. If a serf could stay for one year and one day in a town (without his lord discovering him), he would be treated as a free man.
3. There were bankers and lawyers in the towns. Thus, tertiary occupations had ample scope there.
4. Here was a distinct economic organization in the form of the guild. Each craft or industry was organized into a guild, an association that controlled the quality of the product, its price, and its sale.
5. Craftsmen found it easier to settle in one place where goods could be produced and traded for food.
6. The rich town merchants were developed better than the position of nobility but they were generous to the people engaged in their businesses.
7. Later-on, Cathedral towns were formed. Cathedrals have belonged to monasteries and rich merchants. The craftsmen contributed generously, their labor, money, and expertise. These were built in a number of years and became centers of pilgrimage. Gradually, small towns were developed around them and they were called Cathedral towns.

Conclusion-On the basis of an above distinct entity, we can state the towns and towns’ people, as the fourth-order of the social set-up in Europe.

Question 14.
What special features of medieval European towns do you see in the drawing given in this theme? How were they different from towns in other places and other periods of time?
Answer:
Features of medieval European towns

1. We see in the drawing that a ring road at the periphery and a fine network of roads inside embracing all structures.
2. The entire town was duly fenced i.e. a fence wall is built outside the ring road at the periphery with circular gates all around.
3. A ditch or perhaps river has been shown flowing outside the fence. There are bridges for its crossing and finely built posts for inspection of incoming people.
4. The planning of town seems drawn by an expert architect more than the modern architect.
5. There are approach roads, paved paths, market places, residential blocks, administrative blocks, churches, and parks with lush green trees planted in rows.

These towns were different from towns in other places and other periods of time because, at other times, no town planning was made by the Europeans. There were three orders set-up and manorial estates were only fenced and demarketed. So grand planning was needed a lot of money and contribution from all sections of the society.

The town which planning we see in this theme was Cathedral town and we know that such towns, i.e. Cathedral towns were built when Europe became self-sufficient in foodgrain productivity, promotion of trade and commerce to new heights and population increased from 62 millions of 1200 CE to 73 million in 1300 CE. The rich merchants contributed generously and craftsmen as also common people took a keen interest in building such Cathedral towns. These became places of pilgrim and markets settled around them.

Question 15.
Do you think, the new monarchy was a modified form of feudalism?
Answer:
Yes, it was actually a modified form of feudalism owing to, contrary circumstances, the nobility faced. These were-sudden changes in climate, agricultural production plummeted, land overused hence, marginal fertility, and the catastrophe of bubonic plague which distorted the system of feudalism. Scarcity of labor caused an escalation in the rate of wage, laborers some way became independent and it brought peasants revolt in Flander, France, and England.

In these circumstances, the Kings did some contingent arrangements like a standing army, permanent bureaucracy, and taxation system at the national level. The nobility first revealed its dissent which was witnessed as rebellions of 1536, 1547, 1549, and 1553. These all crushed mercilessly by the Kings, eg. Louis XI of France. It then surrendered and transformed into loyalists. We see, the same class of people i.e. nobleman continued to dominate the political scene. They were given permanent positions in the administrative set-up.

Conclusion-Thus, on the above counts, we can state that a new monarchy was just a modified form of the feudal system.

Question 16.
Discuss the structure of the new monarchy established on the ruins of feudalism.
Answer:
The King in the new monarchy was at the center of an elaborate courtier society and a network of patron-client relationships. The prosperous nobles were needed the kings in a monarchy because but for their cooperation, it was felt difficult to sustain their status as a King. In brief, money was directly needed hence, the bankers and merchant classes became the members of that assembly. Administrative expenses and salaries to soldiers were paid mainly from the contribution and support given by that section of society to the King.

Later on, there was constituted a consultative assembly known as Estates-General consisting of three houses, i.e. clergy, nobility, and the common people. It was called only once in 1614 in the regime of child-king Louis’s XIII of France and the period between 1614 to 1789 remained in consultation to Estates-General as no meetings were called by the succeeding Kings. In England, there was a great council in the regime of Anglo-Saxon tribes even before the Norman conquest.

That ‘ Council was consulted regularly to decide the assessment of taxes etc. issues. That council was developed into the Parliament consisted of the House Of Lords and the House of Commons. Lords and Clergy v were the members of the house of Lords while town and rural area people were the representatives of the house of commons. Gradually, the Parliament became powerful enough as it executed King Charles I who did not call Parliament session for as long the period as, eleven years. Thus, a republic was established in England. However, it could not run for long and soon there was, the monarchy restored but regular sessions of Parliament were called since that event-C i.e. execution of King Charles I had taken place.

The Three Orders Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
‘Three orders’ phrase signifies that there is involved religion in the ruling system of the community. To what extent, do you agree with his statement? Explain.
Answer:
Three orders, on perusal of this term, we conclude the der of the society in three different sections i.e.

1. The priests,
2. The nobility and
3. the peasants.

A brief account of these orders can be given as under:
1. The Priests–It was the first and the supreme order of the society in Europe between the period fifth and the fifteen centuries. It was the Federal type of Administration whose network was made by the Feudal form of nobility. The church was the supreme authority. It was actually the law-making section. It had defined the supreme place of the Pope, the religious preceptor. He used to live in Rome and administration was run through Papal Bull by him in Europe with the machinery of the bishops and Clerics.

2. The Nobility-Nobility was the second order of European society. It has the executive powers of the Fevidal system of governance. Hereby the nobles i.e. the large Estate owners or manors used to nominate one among them as Seigneur (senior). All other nobles then became vassal to him while the peasants were the vassals of their landowners i.e. manors.

The King or senior also had a large state, owned and cultivated by two kinds of peasants viz. one who was smaller peasants owned their lands and the others who were serfs i.e. slaves. Every manor had owned his large estate consisting of a number of buildings including the manor house, knight house, homes for peasants, and surfs. The land was constituting of meadows, pastures, cultivated land, an area under forest, roads, bridges, etc. This estate was like a castle and a smaller Kingdom in itself.

Sources of income were the taxes imposed on peasants in the ratio of 1/10 of the gross agricultural production, the begar made by both peasants i.e. free peasants and the surfs. The manor or noble had to pay the taxes in cash or kind to the coffer or pool of the King.

3. The peasants-Peasants were of two types. Some were free while others were unfree or surfs. Free peasants held their farms as tenants of the Lord or manor. They were compelled to provide at least forty days of military services per annum, three days of the week in working or farming, cultivating the fields of their manor, but without getting any remuneration for their works so done. It was considered under the law as Iabourrent. Their women and children were all deployed in works like pressing grapes for King’s nobles, spun thread, wove cloth, made candles, etc. The serfs had not owned any lands.

They had to cultivate the land of the manor but except for getting their food and daily needs, they were paid nothing. There were a number of restrictions imposed on them. They would not allow marriage or other ties unless a fee was paid for the same. Serfs would use only their lord’s mill to grind their flour, his oven to bake their bread, and his wine-presses to distill wine and beer.

The economic relations, land use, and new agricultural technology, new towns and towns’ people all had witnessed a change in the society. We know that during the period from the fifth to the eleventh century, the environment was excessively cold hence, no progress, the agriculture could witness but from the eleventh century, the temperature began to change from cooler to warmer. Hence, a number: of species in the plant kingdom and animal kingdom started to grow. The vegetation cover made the environment fertile for the growth of several crops including wheat, peas, beans, oats, and barley. Thus, agriculture production increased manifold.

It subsequently, developed – trade and commerce, and people took a keen interest in the development, of new agricultural tools and machinery. They began to use heavy iron-tipped plows and moldboards in place of wooden plows drawn by a team of oxen. Oxen were got shoulder harness in place, of neck harness. More water-powered and wind-powered mills were set up all over Europe for purposes like milling corn and pressing grapes. The most revolutionary change in land-use was the shift from a two-field to a three-field system. They could plant one with is wheat or rye in autumn for human consumption.

The second could be used in spring to raise peas, beans, and lentils for human use. The third field lay fallow. Each year, they rotated the use among the three % fields. Trade started from the silk route and maritime route. An increase, in agricultural production, resulted in an increased population from 62. millions of 1200 to 73 million in 1300 CE. An increase in population and agricultural yield both resulted in the revival of the towns which were deserted along-with the decline of the Roman Empire.

In towns, people instead of services paid a tax to the lords who owned the land on which the town stood. Towns offered the prospect of paid work and freedom from the lord’s control, for young people from peasants. families. Trade and Commerce made the merchant section of society very prosperous and they began to donate money to the clergy to construct the Cathedrals i.e. worshipping place of monasteries.

There were grand buildings sometimes, made within the complex of Churches. Soon, there developed markets around these Cathedral structures and craftsmen guilds settled towns.

Conclusion-Thus, on the above description, we see that the feudal system in England was developed, nourished, and administered by the religion i.e. Christianity. People were linked with vassalage similar to the practice among Germanic people. Nobles were vassals of the King who himself (i.e. the king) was a noble and peasants were vassals of nobles (manors) but the power of the Church was supreme.