Prasanna

On this page, you will find NCERT Class 8 Geography Chapter 1 Notes Pdf free download. CBSE Class 8 Social Science Notes Geography Chapter 1 SST Resources will seemingly, help them to revise the important concepts in less time.

Resources Class 8 Notes Social Science Geography Chapter 1

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 1 Notes Understanding the Lesson

1. Anything that can be used to satisfy a need is a resource.

2. Utility or usability is what makes an object or substance a resource. For example, water, electricity, rickshaw, vegetable and textbook, etc. have something in common and all have been used by human beings, so they have utility.

3. Things become resources when they have a value. Its use or utility gives it a value and all resources have some value.

4. Value means worth. Some have economic value some do not.

5. Some resources can become economically valuable with time.

6. Time and technology are two important factors that can change substances into resources. Both are related to the needs of the people and people themselves are the most important resource.

7. Resources are classified into following categories:

• Natural resources
• Man-made resources
• Human resources

Natural Resources

8. Resources which are drawn from nature and used without much modification are called natural resources.

9. Natural resources are classified into different groups depending upon their level of development and use; origin; stock and distribution.

10. Based on development and use resources are classified into two groups:

• Actual resources
• Potential resources

11. Actual Resources:

• Resources whose quantity is known and are being used in the present.

12. Potential Resources

• Resources whose entire quantity may not be known and are not being used at present. These could be used in the future.
• The level of technology we have at present may not be advanced enough to easily utilise these resources.

13. Based on their origin, classification of resources can be:

• Abiotic resources – Non-living
• Biotic resources – Living

14. Natural resources are categorised broadly into:

• Renewable resources
• Non-renewable resources

15. Renewable Resources

• Those which get renewed or replenished quickly.
• Some of these are unlimited and even not affected by human activities.

16. Non-renewable Resources

• Those which have a limited stock.
• Once the stocks are exhausted it may take thousands of years to be renewed or replenished.
• On the basis of their distribution resources can be ubiquitous or localized. Those found only in certain places are localized.
• The distribution of natural resources depends upon numbers of physical factors and these factors differ so much over the Earth that distribution of resources is unequal.

17. Human Made resources

Natural substances become resources only when their original form has been changed. People use natural resources to make buildings, bridges, roads, machinery and vehicles, that are known as human-made resources. Even the technology is defined as a human-made resource.

18. Human Resources

People can make the best use of nature to create more resources with the help of their knowledge, skill and technology which they have. This is why human beings are known as special resources. Education and health help in making people a valuable resource.

19. Human Resources Development

• Improvising the quality of skills of people to make them able to create more resources is known as human resource development.

20. Conserving Resources

• Resource conservation is meant by using resources carefully and giving them time to get renewed.
• Sustainable development is defined as balancing the need to use resources and also conserve them for the future needs.
• The future of our planet and its people is co-related with the ability to maintain and preserve the life support system by the nature.

21. It is the duty of people of this Earth to ensure that:

• All uses of renewable resources are sustainable.
• The diversity of life on Earth is conserved.
• The damage to natural environmental system is minimised.

Resources Class 8 CBSE Notes Important Terms

Utility: The state of being useful, profitable or beneficial.

Value: It means worth or considering something to be important or beneficial.

Patent: It means the exclusive right over any idea or invention.

Technology: It is the application of latest knowledge and skill in doing or making things.

Origin: The point or place where something begins, arises or is derived.

Stock of resources: It is the amount of resources available for use.

Human resources: Refers to the number and abilities of the people.

Sustainable development: Carefully utilizing resources so that besides meeting the requirements of the present, they also takes care of future generations.

On this page, you will find NCERT Class 8 Civics Chapter 4 Notes Pdf free download. CBSE Class 8 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 4 SST Understanding Laws will seemingly, help them to revise the important concepts in less time.

Understanding Laws Class 8 Notes Social Science Civics Chapter 4

CBSE Class 8 Civics Chapter 4 Notes Understanding the Lesson

1. Parliament is in charge of making laws.

2. Laws apply to all:

• All persons in independent India are equal before the law.
• Law cannot discriminate between persons on the basis of their religion, caste and gender.
• Rule of law means that all laws apply equally to all citizens of the country and no one can be above the law.
• Any crime or violation of law has a specific punishment as well as process through which the guilt of the person has to be established.
• In ancient India, there were innumerable and often overlapping local laws. Different communities enjoyed different degrees of autonomy in administering these laws among there own.
• System of law began to further evolve during the colonial period.
• It is believed that it was the British colonials who introduced the Rule of law in India.
• Historians have disputed this claim on several grounds.
• Sedition Act of 1870 changed the idea of sedition.
• Indian nationalists began protesting and criticising the arbitrary use of authority by the British.
• By the end of the 19^th century the Indian legal profession also began emerging and demanded respect in colonial courts.
• Indian judges began to play a greater role in working decisions.
• With the adoption of the Constitution, this document served as the foundation on which our representatives began making laws for the country.
• Every year our representatives pass several laws as well as revise existing ones.
• Hindu Succession Amendment Act 2005. According to this new law, sons, daughters and their mothers can get an equal share of family property.

3. How do new laws come about?

• Parliament plays important role in making laws.
• An important role of Parliament is to be sensitive to the problems faced by the people.
• Role of citizens is crucial helping Parliament frame different concerns that people have into laws.
• From establishing the need for a new law to its being passed at every stage of the process, voice of citizen is a crucial element.

4. Unpopular and controversial laws:

• Sometimes, a law can be Constitutionally valid and hence, legal but it can continue to be unpopular and unacceptable to the people because it is felt that the intention behind it is unfair and harmful.
• In democracy like ours, citizens can express the unwillingness to accept repressive laws framed by the Parliament.
• There is a pressure on Parliament to change the law if people begin to feel that the wrong law is passed.
• If the law favours one group and disregards the other then it will be controversial and leads to conflict.
• The people who think that the law is not fair can approach the court to decide on the issue.
• The court has the power to modify or cancel laws if it finds that they don’t adhere to the Constitution.
• As a citizen one should remember that role does not end with electing our representatives.
• It is the involvement and the enthusiasm of the people that help Parliament performing representative functions properly.

Understanding Laws Class 8 CBSE Notes Important Terms

Criticise: to find fault with or disapprove of a person or thing.

Evolution: Process of development from a simple to a complex form and is often used to discuss the development of the species of plants and animals.

Sedition: This applies to anything that the government might consider as stirring up resistance or rebellion against it. In such cases government does not need absolute evidence in order to arrest persons.

Repressive: To control severely in order to prevent free and natural development or expression.

On this page, you will find NCERT Class 8 Civics Chapter 3 Notes Pdf free download. CBSE Class 8 Social Science Notes Civics Chapter 3 SST Why do we Need a Parliament will seemingly, help them to revise the important concepts in less time.

Why do we Need a Parliament Class 8 Notes Social Science Civics Chapter 3

CBSE Class 8 Civics Chapter 3 Notes Understanding the Lesson

1. Parliament enables citizens of India to participate in decision making and control the government. Therefore, Parliament is the most important symbol of Indian democracy and key features of the Constitution.

2. Why should people decide?

• After long and difficult struggle in which many sections of society participated, India got independence.
• Under colonial rule people lived in fear of the British government and disagreed with the decisions of the British.
• Criticizing the British government was a grave danger at that time.
• During 1885, India National Congress (I.N.C) demanded that there be elected members in the legislatures with a right of discussing budget and ask questions.
• Government of India act 1909, allowed for some elected representation.
• The British did not allow for all adults to vote nor could people participate in decision making.
• Nationalists, after getting freedom decided government will not do what they want but the people should get involved in decision making.
• The dreams and aspirations of the freedom struggle were made concrete in the Constitution of independent India, laying down the principle of universal adult franchise.

3. People and their representatives:

• The take-off point for democracy is the idea of consensus.
• The decision of people creates a democratic government and decides about its functioning.
• Individual gives approval to the government in many ways one of which is through elections in which people would elect their representative for the government.
• The Parliament is made up of representatives together and controls and guides the government.
• In this sense, people through their chosen representative, form the government and also control it.

4. The role of the Parliament:

• Created after 1947, Indian Parliament is an expression of faith and because of it, the people of India have principle of democracy.
• Parliament, in our system, has immense powers because it is the representative of the people.
• Elections of parliament are held in similar manner as they are for the State legislature.
• Lok Sabha is usually elected once every five years.
• Each constituency elects one person to the Parliament.
• The candidates contesting elections usually belong to different political parties.
• Elected candidates become Member of Parliament or MPs.
• The MP’s together make up the Parliament.
• Parliament has following functions:

A. Select the National government:

• Parliament consists of the President, Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha in India.
• After elections, a list is prepared about how many MP’s belong to each political party.
• For a political party to form the government, they must have majority of elected MPs.
• There are 543 elected and 2 nominated members in Lok Sabha, to have a majority a party should have at least half the number i.e., 272 members or more.
• The opposition is formed in Parliament by all the political parties that oppose majority party/ coalition formed. The largest among these parties is called the Opposition party.
• One of the most important functions of the Lok Sabha is to select the executive.
• The Prime Minister (PM) of India is the leader of the ruling party in Lok Sabha.
• PM selects ministers to work with in order to implement decisions.
• The ministers take charge of different areas of government functioning like health, education, finance, etc.
• The joining together of different political parties who are interested in similar concerns forms coalition government.
• Rajya Sabha functions primarily as the representative of the States of India in the Parliament.
• The members of Rajya Sabha are elected by the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of various States.
• There are 233 elected and 12 nominated members in Rajya Sabha.

B. To control, guide and inform the government:

• The Parliament, while in session, begins with question hour.
• The Opposition parties play a critical role in the healthy functioning of a democracy.
• The government gets valuable feedback and it is kept on its toes by the questions asked by the MPs.
• The MPs are representatives of the people and have a central role in controlling, guiding and informing Parliament and this is a key aspect of the functioning of Indian democracy.

5. Lawmaking is a significant function of the Parliament.

6. The people in the Parliament:

7. Parliament now has more and more people from different backgrounds.

8. It has been observed that representative democracy cannot produce a perfect reflection of the society.

9. It is important to ensure that communities that have been historically marginalized are given adequate representation.

10. Considering this some seats are reserved in the Parliament for SCs and STs.

11. This has been done so that MPs elected from these constituencies will be familiar with and can represent Dalit andf Adivasi interests in Parliament.

12. Recently it has been suggested that there should be reservation of seats for women.

13. The fact that we can ask questions and are working towards answers is a reflection of the strength and the faith that people of India have in a democratic form of government.

Why do we Need a Parliament Class 8 CBSE Notes Important Terms

Approval: to give one’s consent to and be favourable towards something.

Coalition: A temporary alliance of groups and parties.

Unresolved: Situation in which there are no easy solutions to problem.

On this page, you will find NCERT Class 8 History Chapter 12 Notes Pdf free download. CBSE Class 8 Social Science Notes History Chapter 12 SST India After Independence will seemingly, help them to revise the important concepts in less time.

India After Independence Class 8 Notes Social Science History Chapter 12

CBSE Class 8 History Chapter 12 Notes Understanding the Lesson

1. India, with its independence in 1947, faced a huge series of challenges.

2. Especially, the challenges were in the form of refugees and of princely states, settlements which were to be addressed immediately.

3. Political system was created in a manner that it could best serve the expectations of the country’s population.

4. In 1947, India had great population of approximately around 345 million that was divided on the basis of castes, community, languages, dress and lifestyle etc., that needed to be united as soon as possible.

5. Problem of unity was added with the problem of development.

6. New nation was willing in the upliftment of its masses that is its people out of poverty.

7. This could only be done by increasing the productivity of agriculture and by promotion of the new job creating industries.

8. The Constitution was written between December 1946 – November 1949 when around 300 members from all over India had series of meetings at the Constituent Assembly in Delhi.

9. These discussions resulted in framing of the Indian Constitution which came into effect on 26 January 1950.

10. First feature of the constitution was the adoption of universal adult franchise, a revolutionary step which was adopted in steps in UK and US also. But in India, just after Independence, this right was granted to the citizens regardless of gender, class or education.

11. Second feature of the Indian Constitution was that it guaranteed its citizen’s equality before the law regardless to their castes, or religious belongingness.

12. Third feature of the constitution was the offering of special privileges to the poorest and the most disadvantaged Indians by describing the practice of untouchability as a “slur and a blot” on the “fair name of India”.

13. Reservation was granted in seats and jobs to former untouchables, the adivasis or scheduled tribes.

14. Many of the days were spent in the discussions about the powers of the central government and the state governments.

15. This was resolved as in Constitution there is mentioned about the three lists of subjects.

• Union List: That discusses about the subjects such as taxes, defence, and foreign affairs, basically the responsibility of the centre is discussed.
• State List: Comprised of subjects like education and health that would be taken care of principally by the states.
• Concurrent List: The subjects discussed in this list are such as forests and agriculture in which the centre and the states would have joint responsibility.

16. Major debate in the Constituent Assembly concerned language.

17. Many Indians played important role in the framing of the constitution but the most important role was played by Dr B.R. Ambedkar, Chairman of the Drafting Committee who supervised and finalised the document.

18. Formation of state was also a problem. It was promised by the Congress before independence that after winning independence each major linguistic group would have its own province. Although the promise was not fulfilled by Congress.

19. Both Prime Minister Nehru and Deputy Prime Minister were against the creation of states on linguistic base.

20. Non-fulfillment of promise by Congress created a great disappointment among the speakers of different languages.

21. Strongest protest was by Telugu speaking districts of the Madras Presidency.

22. New state of Andhra Pradesh came into existence on 1 October 1953. This happened after:

23. Veteran Gandhian named Potti Sriramula went on a hunger fast demanding for the formation of a new state i.e., Andhra Pradesh that will protect the interests of the Telugu speakers.

24. State Reorganisation Commission was set up when the demand for various separate states was raised by the different linguistic communities.

25. The commission submitted its report in 1956. The report recommended the redrawing of district and provincial boundaries to form compact provinces of Assamese, Bengali, Oriya, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu speakers respectively.

26. The further division was seen in areas of Hindi speaking people and bilingual state. For example, Bombay a bilingual state was divided into Marathi and Gujarati, Punjab divided into Punjab and Haryana etc.

27. Planning for developments started as a process after the country was approximately settled best by the leaders of that period.

• In manner to lift India and Indians out of poverty and building a modern and industrial base were taken as objectives of the new nation.
• Planning Commission was set up in 1950 by the government.
• Planning Commission was aimed at designing and executing suitable policies of economic development.
• 1956 saw the Second Five Year Plan for emulation.
• The Second Five Year Plan focused strongly on the development of heavy industries.
• These sectors would be under the control of the state.
• This approach of development of heavy industries on one side got strong supporters but on the same hand it also saw vocal critics.

28. At present even after such a long time of independence India is still united, democratic and its achievements are what makes its citizens proud of it.

29. Despite of several hurdles we all saw several successes which are not only appreciated by Indians but also by the other world countries and its people.

30. The speciality and features of the Constitution like free press, independent judiciary, unity in diversity made its people proud of‘The Republic of India’.

India After Independence Class 8 CBSE Notes Important Terms

Franchise: The right to vote.

Linguistic: Relating to language.

State: Concerned with the government (here in this chapter).

Refugee: The one who has been forced to leave his country or home due to any specific condition.

Notes of History Class 8 Chapter 12 Time Period

1945: Formation of United Nation.

1947: India became independent (15th August)

1948: Mahatma Gandhi shot by NathuramGodse.

1950: (i) Adopted Indian Constitution (26th January).

(ii) Planning Commission was set up.

1952: First General Election held in India.

1953: The new State of Andhra Pradesh came into existence.

1959: The Bhilai Steel plant was set up with the help of the former Soviet Union in 1959 in the back­ward rural area of Chhattisgarh.

1960: Bombay was divided into separate states for Marathi and Gujarati speakers.

1966: The state of Punjab divided into two states Punjab and Haryana on the basis Punjabi & Haryanvi or Hindi speaking.

On this page, you will find Understanding Elementary Shapes Class 6 Notes Maths Chapter 5 Pdf free download. CBSE NCERT Class 6 Maths Notes Chapter 5 Understanding Elementary Shapes will seemingly help them to revise the important concepts in less time.

CBSE Class 6 Maths Chapter 5 Notes Understanding Elementary Shapes

Understanding Elementary Shapes Class 6 Notes Conceptual Facts

1. The distance between the end points of a line segment is called its length.

2. The length of a line segment is measured by graduated ruler.

3. The length of two line segments is compared by the divider.

4. An angle is formed by two arms (rays) with the same initial point.

5. An angle is measured in ‘degrees’.

6. An angle is measured by ‘protractor’.

7. Measure of one complete angle is 360°.

8. Measure of straight angle is 180°.

9. Measure of right angle is 90°.

10. An angle-less than 90° is called acute angle.

11. An angle more than 90° but less than 180° is called obtuse angle.

12. An angle greater than straight angle is called ‘reflex’ angle.

13. Two lines are said to be perpendicular to each other if the angle between them is 90°.

14. Two lines are parallel if they do not intersect each other even on producing to any extent.

15. Types of triangle on the basis of sides:

• Scalene: all the three sides are unequal in length.
• Isosceles: any two sides are equal in length.
• Equilateral: all the three sides are equal in length.

16. Types of triangle on the basis of angles:

• Acute triangle: each angles is less than 90° (acute)
• Right angled triangle: one of the three angles is (90°)
• Obtuse angled triangle : one of the three angle is more than 90°.

17. Polygon is a closed figure bounded by a certain number of line segments:

• Triangle: bounded by 3 sides.
• Quadrilateral: bounded by 4 sides.
• Pentagon: bounded by 5 sides.
• Hexagon: bounded by 6 sides.
• Heptagon: bounded by 7 sides.
• Octagon: bounded by 8 sides.

18. Types of quadrilateral:

• Parallelogram: Pair of opposite sides are equal and parallel.
• Square: each angle is 90° and all sides are equal.
• Rectangle: each angle is 90° and opposite sides are equal.
• Rhombus: a parallelogram with all equal sides.
• Trapezium: a pair of opposite sides are parallel.
• 3-D shapes: faces, edges and vertices are the elements of 3-D figures.

On this page, you will find NCERT Class 8 History Chapter 11 Notes Pdf free download. CBSE Class 8 Social Science Notes History Chapter 11 SST The Making of the National Movement 1870s – 1947 will seemingly, help them to revise the important concepts in less time.

The Making of the National Movement 1870s – 1947 Class 8 Notes Social Science History Chapter 11

CBSE Class 8 History Chapter 11 Notes Understanding the Lesson

1. The rise of Questions: what is this country India and for whom is it meant?

2. The answers to these questions are: India, was the people of India – all the people of all class, colour, caste, creed, language or gender belong to this nation. The resources of the country were meant for all the people.

3. The gradual rise in the thinking capability of the people of India with time answered many questions and even created awareness in the minds of the people that Britishers were fiercely exercising the control over the resources and lives of the people of India.

4. Indians could not be the part of India unless and untill the control of British got diminished or vanished.

5. The beginning of consciousness was with the formation of political associations like Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, the Bombay Presidency Association, the Madras Mahajan Sabha and the Indian National Congress. Although most of these were led by the English professionals but they clearly stated in their aim to spread consciousness and sovereignity in people.

6. Sovereign can be defined as modern consciousness and key feature of nationalism. In a layman sense, it means that Indias should be empowered for taking their own decisions.

7. During 1870’s and 1880’s dissatisfaction with British rule intensified due to various reasons like Arms Act of 1878, Vernacular Press Act, and in 1883 the government was willing to introduce the Ilbert Bill.

8. These reasons of dissatisfaction created the need for an all India organisation of educated Indians since 1880 and desire for this was deepened with the controversy of Ilbert Bill.

9. In 1885, 72 delegates from all over India met at Bombay and the Indian National Congress (INC) was established.

10. The early leadership comprised of a large number from Bombay and Calcutta.

• Naoroji worked as a guide for the younger nationalists.
• O. Hume, a retired British official, played an important role by bringing Indians from different re­gions together.

11. For the I^st 20 years which is known as the moderate phase of Congress it demanded basically a greater voice for Indians in the government and in administration.

12. They also demanded for the civil service examination to be held in India for their will of establishing Indians in high positions in the governance.

13. Indianisation of the administration can be regarded as the part of movement against racism.

14. By declaring that the British rule had led to poverty and famines, the Congress in its early phase demanded several economic issues like reduction of taxes and revenues on various things, well treatment of labour class etc.

15. Being an elite educated body, it never discussed on behalf of any professional groups.

16. Moderates wanted the development of public awareness regarding the unjust nature of the British rule.

17. They even wanted to make the government aware about the feelings of Indians.

18. By 1890’s criticism of Congress started by questioning about the political style of Congress.

19. The critiques were the radical groups who criticised the moderates for their political prayers in front of the British government.

20. They wanted the people to rely on their own strength and improve themselves to fight for Swaraj.

21. “Freedom is my birthright and I shall have it” – Slogan raised by Tilak.

22. In 1905 Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal giving the reason that dividing Bengal would help in the administrative convenience.

23. It was also believed that by dividing Bengal, British had motives to curtail the influence of Bengali politicians and to split the Bengali people.

24. Partition of Bengal was opposed by all sections of the Congress and also infuriated the people all over India.

25. The struggle against the partition of the Bengal came to be known as Swadeshi movement. The movement although happened only in India but had echoed all over India too, for example in deltaic Andhra the movement was named or known as the Vandemataram Movement.

26. Swadeshi Movement not only opposed the British rule but also encouraged the idea of self help, Swadeshi enterprise, national education and of Indian languages.

27. Radicals advocated that to fight for Swaraj there was need for mass mobilisation and boycott.

28. Some even suggested “revolutionary violence” necessary for the overthrowing of the British Rule.

29. All India Muslim League at Dacca was founded in 1906 by group of landlords and nawabs. They were

• supportive to Swadeshi Movement.
• demanded separate electorates for Muslims and the demand was conceded by the government in 1909.

30. Congress split in 1907.

• Moderates opposed using Boycott as they felt that Boycott involved the use of force.
• Split was dominated by the moderate and Tilak’s followers were functioning from outside.
• The both groups of Congress reunited in the year 1915 again and in the next year historical Lucknow Pact was signed between the Congress and the Muslim League.

31. Struggle against the British gradually transformed into a mass movement after 1919.

32. The first world war altered not only economic but also political scenario of India. It led to huge rise in defence expenditure of the government of India, increased military expenditure and with this there was a sharp rise in prices that created unbearable difficulties for the common people of that time.

33. The World war I^st created a great profit earning situation for the business groups.

34. The World war resulted in the expansion of the British army.

35. In 1917 with the revolution in Russia, the spread of ideas of socialism was seen widely resulting in the inspiration for the Indian Nationalists.

36. Advent of Mahatma Gandhi who emerged as mass leader.

37. Arrived in 1915 from South Africa at an age of 46 years.

38. Respected leader of South Africa for the Indians there.

39. Mahatma Gandhi spent I^st year in India by travelling throughout the country, understanding the actual situation of India and the Indians under the British colonial rule.

40. Earlier intervention of Gandhiji in the local movements was seen in Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad.

41. Movements between 1919 – 1922 were led by Gandhiji.

42. In 1919, Satyagraha was initiated against the just passed Rowlatt Act by the British.

• Criticizing the Act as restriction on the basic freedom.
• 6 April 1919 was observed as day of non-violent opposition to the Rowlatt Act.
• The Rowlatt Satyagraha turned to be the first all-India struggle against the British government.
• The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre on April 13 was also part of the repression of his satyagraha.
• Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood expressing his anger against the British.

43. Khilafat agitation and the Non-cooperation Movement have gained momentum.

• As in 1920 Khilafat issue got in front of the world.
• British in 1920 imposed treaty on Khalifa.
• Leaders of Khilafat agitation Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali supported Gandhiji, urged the Congress to campaign against Jallianwala Massacre, the Khilafat issue and also to demand Swaraj.
• With the peak in the Non-cooperation movement complete boycott of British was seen.

44. The National Movement started to be linked with the local grievances by the people. In many forest villages peasants even proclaimed Swaraj and started believing about the establishment of the Gandhi Raj.

45. Khilafat – non-cooperation alliance gave enormous communal unity with the strenghtning of national movement.

46. In Punjab – Akali agitation of Sikhs was seen, in Assam tea garden labourers’ demand for increasing wages was raised. They all were seen as part of non-cooperation only.

47. Gandhiji was seen as a kind of Messiah by some people.

• Ordinary people credited Gandhiji for their own achievements.

48. Mahatma Gandhi was strong opposer of violent movement. This resulted in calling off of the non­cooperation movement after crowd of peasants set police station in Chauri Chaura on fire in 1922.

49. In order to influence government policies it was stressed by some leaders that Congress should fight elections to the councils.

50. In the mid of 1920’s the two important development were seen in the form of formation of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and the Communist Party of India (CPI).

51. Revolutionary nationalist Shri Shaheed Bhagat Singh was too active during the period of mid 1920’s.

52. The “Independence Day” was observed on 26^th January 1930 as under the Presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru. Congress fought in the 1920’s decade for the objective of complete independence (ie. Poorna Swaraj).

53. In 1930, Mahatma Gandhi broke the salt law. Marching with 20 followers Gandhiji marched 240 miles from Sabarmati to the coastal town of Dandi.

54. Combined struggles of Indian people resulted in Government of India Act 1935 prescribing about provincial autonomy and announcing elections for the provincial legislatures in 1937. Congress won 7 out of 11 provinces.

55. In September 1939, with outbreak of II^nd world war, Congress leaders got ready to support the British but in return demanded independence after the war which was refused by the British. In return Congress Ministries resigned as protest against the refusal.

56. Mahatma Gandhi initiated a new phase of movement against the British in middle of II^nd world war, he said people to “do or die” to fight the British but with non-violence.

• This movement attracted specially the peasants and youths.
• The British Rai was brought to its knees.

57. In 1940, Muslim League moved resolution demanding “Independent States” for Muslims in north-west and east part of India.

58. From 1930’s Muslims were viewed as separate nation from the Hindu concluding with the history of tension.

59. Congress failed in mobilising Muslim masses and in 1930 this condition allowed Muslim League to widen its social support.

60. Muslim League persisted with its demand for Pakistan.

• In March 1946, British cabinet sent 3 member mission to examine the demand of Pakistan.
• The mission suggested that Indians should remain united and constitute itself as a loose confederation giving some autonomy for Muslim majority areas.
• The Congress and the Muslim League did not agree on the details of proposal resulting in the more inevitability of the partition.
• Failure of cabinet mission led to mass agitation of Muslim League for the demand of Pakistan.
• 16^th August 1946 was announced as “Direct Action Day”. Riots broke in Calcutta and by March 1947 violence spread to different parts of Northern India.

61. With the brutality against several innocent people of both the countries, Pakistan was bom and joy of country’s Independence from British rule came mixed with pain and violence of partition.

The Making of the National Movement 1870s – 1947 Class 8 CBSE Notes Important Terms

Sovereign: The capacity to act independently without outside interference.

Publicist: Someone who publicises an idea by circulating information, writing reports, speaking at meetings.

Repeal: To undo law to officially end the validity of something such as law.

Revolutionary violence: The use of violence to make a radical change within society.

Council: An appointed or elected body of people with an administrative, advisory or representative function.

Knighthood: An honour granted by the British Crown for exceptional personal achievement on public service.

Picket: People protesting outside a building or shop to prevent others from entering.

Mahants: Religious functionaries of Sikh gurdwaras.

Illegal eviction: Forcible and unlawful throwing out of tenants from the land they rent.

Provincial autonomy: Capacity of the provinces to make relatively independent decisions while remaining within a federation.

General constituencies: Election districts with no reservations for any religious or other community.

Pooma swaraj: Complete independence.

RSS: Hindu ideological group. RSS Stands for Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh.

Notes of History Class 8 Chapter 11 Time Period

1878: Arms Act was passed which disallowing Indians from possessing arms.

1885: Formation of ‘Indian National Congress’ at Bombay.

1905: Viceroy Curzon partitioned Bengal.

1906: Formation of ‘All India Muslim League’ at Dacca.

1907: Congress split in two groups.

1915: (i) Gandhiji arrived in India from South Africa.

(ii) Both group of Congress reunited.

1917: Revolution of Russia took place.

1919: (i) Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act called by Gandhiji.

(ii) JallianwalaBagh atrocities (13 April)

1920: The Non-Cooperation Movement started.

1928: Formation of Hindustan Socialist Republican Association by Bhagat Singh and his comrades at FerozeshahKotla in Delhi.

1929: Demand of PurnaSwaraj by Congress.

1930: (i) Independence Day was observed all over the Country (26 January).

(ii) ‘Dandi March’ launched by Gandhiji.

1942: The Quit India Movement started (in August).

1947: India got independence from British Rule & a new country formed known as Pakistan.

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Understanding Secularism Class 8 Notes Social Science Civics Chapter 2

CBSE Class 8 Civics Chapter 2 Notes Understanding the Lesson

1. History provides us the many examples that show how there was discrimination, exclusion and persecution on the ground of religion.

2. Maximum times members of one religious community either persecute or discriminate against member of other religious communities.

3. The process of discrimination always occurs at the time when one religion is given official recognition by the State at the expense of other religions.

4. No one would wish to be discriminated against because of their religion nor dominated by another religion.

5. In India the Indian Constitution allows individuals the freedom to live by their religious beliefs and practices as they interpret these.

6. For the above purpose, India adopted a studying of separating the power of religions and the power of the State.

7. Secularism refers to this separation of religions from the State.

8. To function democratically it is important for a country that there should exist the separation of religion from State power.

9. If majority religious groups have the access to State power, they misuse their power against other religions.

10. The majority could quite easily prevent minorities from practising their religions.

11. This will result in the tyranny of the majority and the violation of Fundamental Rights.

12. This shows why it is important to separate the State and religion in democratic societies.

13. The need to protect the freedom of industries to exit from their religion, embrace religion or have the freedom to interpret religious teachings differently. This is another reason that shows the importance of separation of religions from the State.

14. India Secularism, according to the Indian Constitution, it is mandatory for the Indian State to be secular.

15. As per the Constitution, only a secular State can realise its objective to ensure the following:

16. That one religious communists does not dominate another.

17. That some members do not dominate other members of the same religious community.

18. That the State does not enforce any particular religion non take away the religions freedom of individuals.

19. Indian State works in various ways to prevent the above domination.

20. Indian State is not ruled by a religious group and nor does it support any religion.

21. Government schools cannot promote any religions either in the morning prayers or through religions celebrations.

22. Indians secularism also works on the strategy of non interference.

23. It means that in order to respect the sentiments of all religions and not interfere with religious practices, the State makes certain exception for particular religions communities. For e.g., A sikh while riding bike can wear Pugri (turban) instead of helmet.

24. Indian secularism also works to prevent domination of majority over minority through the strategy of intervention.

25. Indian Constitution bans untouchability.

26. To ensure that laws relating equal inheritance rights are respected, the State may have to intervene in the religion-based ‘personal laws’ communities.

27. The Indian Constitution grants the right to religious communities to set up their own schools and colleges. Also the financial aid on non-preferential basis is provided to them.

28. There is a strict separation between religion and the State in U.S.A. While in Indian secularism, the State can intervene in the religious affairs.

29. The Indian State is secular and works in various ways to prevent religious domination.

30. The Indian Constitution gurantees Fundamental Rights that are based on these secular principles.

31. To prevent violation of these rights in India Society we need Constitutional mechanism to prevent them from happening.

32. The knowledge that such rights exist, makes us sensitive to their violations and enables us to take action when these violations takes place.

Understanding Secularism Class 8 CBSE Notes Important Terms

Secularism: India adopted a strategy of separating the power of religion and the power of the State. This separation of religion from the State that is called secularism.

Intervene: It refers to the State’s efforts to influence a particular matter in accordance with the principle of the Constitution.

Coercion: to force someone to do something. It refers to the force used by a legal authority like the State.

Freedom to interpret: It refers to the freedom that all persons shall have to understand things in their own way.

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CBSE Class 6 Maths Chapter 4 Notes Basic Geometrical Ideas

Basic Geometrical Ideas Class 6 Notes Conceptual Facts

1. Basic Geometrical Elements are points, lines and planes.

2. Point determines a location. It does not have length, breadth and thickness. It is usually denoted by a capital letter.

3. Line segment is the shortest distance between two points. Line segment joining points A and B is denoted by AB. AB and BA denote the same line segment.
\(\overline{\mathrm{AB}} \cdot \overline{\mathrm{AB}} \text { and } \overline{\mathrm{BA}}\)

4. When a line segment is extended on both sides infinitely we get a line and it is denoted by \(\overline{\mathrm{AB}}\).

5. A ray is a portion of line starting at a point and extending in one direction endlessly. It is denoted by\(\overline{\mathrm{AB}}\).

6. Two distinct lines which meet at a point are called intersecting lines.

7. Two distinct lines which do not meet at any point, are called parallel lines and denoted by
|| i.e., \(\overline{\mathrm{AB}} \| \overline{\mathrm{CD}}\)

8. Any drawing (straight or non-straight) drawn without lifting the pencil is called a curve.

9. Simple curve does not intersects itself.

10. If the end points of a simple curve are joined, then it is called as closed curve.

11. If the end points of a curve are not joined, then it is called as open curve.

12. Polygon is a simple closed curve made up of line segments.

13. An angle is made up of two rays starting from a common end point. It is read as ∠BOA or ∠AOB.

14. Angle has three regions: On the angle, the interior of the angle and the exterior of the angle.

15. Triangle is a polygon of three sides denoted by ΔABC.

16. Quadrilateral is polygon of four sides.

17. Circle is a path of a point moving at the same distance from a fixed point known as centre and the distance between the fixed point and the moving point is called radius.

18. Chord of a circle is a line segment obtained by joining any two points on the circle. It divides the circle into two segments, minor segment and major segment.

19. Diameter is the longest chord of a circle which passes through the centre and divides the circle into two semi-circles.

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The Indian Constitution Class 8 Notes Social Science Civics Chapter 1

CBSE Class 8 Civics Chapter 1 Notes Understanding the Lesson

1. The society has Constitutive rules that make it what it is and differentiate it from other kinds of societies.

2. In large societies different communities of people live together and rules are formulated through consensus, and in modern countries, this consensus is usually available in written form.

3. A written document where one finds, such rules is called a Constitution.

4. Most countries of the world in present-day have a Constitution.

5. The Constitution serves purposes:

I^st purpose:

6. It lays out certain ideals that form the basis of the kind of country that the citizens of that country aspire to live in.

7. A Constitution tells us about the fundamental nature of the society.

8. A Constitution helps serve as a set of rules and principles that all persons in a country can agree upon as the basic way in which they want the country to be governed.

9. It not only tells us about the type of government but it also explains about an agreement on certain ideals that the citizens of the country believe and should uphold.

10. The best example for the I^st purpose in Nepal.

11. Nepal that was monarchial country in past adopted its previous Constitution in 1990 reflected with the fact that the final authority rested with king.

12. In 2006 with the constant struggle and the people’s movement for several decades the establishment of Democracy was seen putting an end the powers of the king.

13. Now in Nepal there was a definite need for the framing of the new Constitution as the people of the country did not want to continue with the previous Constitution which did not reflect the ideals of the country. The ideals that were wanted by the people of that country.

14. Nepal and its people are involved in the process of writing a Constitution for the country.

II^nd purpose:

15. The II^nd most important purpose of Constitution is to define the native of a country’s political system.

16. The countries which have adopted it, in those countries, Constitution plays a crucial role in laying out important guidelines that govern decision making within these societies.

17. In democratic societies the Constitution often lays down rules guarding against the misuse of authority by the political leader as in democratic societies the people of choose their leaders, and the leaders exercise power responsibly on the people behalf.                                                       ,

18. Right to Equality is one of Fundament Right guaranteed by the Indian Constitution.

19. Constitution even functions to ensure that the dominant group does not use its power against less powerful group or people in a democracy.

20. The Constitution usually contains of rules ensuring that minorities are not excluded from anything that is routinely available to the majority.

21. The Constitution prevents tyranny or domination by the majority of a minority.

22. The Constitution also helps us ‘to save us from ourselves’. This means that the Constitution helps to protect us against certain decisions that we might take that could have an adverse effect on the larger principle that the country believes in.

23. A good Constitution never allows any whims to change its basic structure.

24. Key features of the Indian Constitution itself carries the struggle that was faced under the British, the dreams that how free India would be, the ill treatment of British towards Indians, all these with the long experience of authoritarian rule under the colonial rule convinced the Indians that the free India should be a democracy in which every one should be treated equal and allowed to participate in government.

25. Then the work was started for the ways in which a democratic government should be set up in India and the rules that would determine its functioning.

26. A Constituent Assembly comprised of 300 members, was founded in 1946. The 300 members met periodically for the next 3 yrs for the purpose of writing the Indian Constitution.

27. Various issues were kept in mind while the framing up of the Constitution for the country that was made up of several communities and that comprised of several different languages speakers, the people belonged to different religions and had different cultures. The Constituent Assembly drafted the Indian Constitution by giving this country a visionary document that reflects a respect and maintains diversity while preserving national unity.

28. The final document also reflects their concern for eradicating poverty through socio-economic reforms as well as emphasizing the crucial role the people can play in choosing their representatives.

29. The Indian Constitution has several number of features that are:

1. Federation: The term refers to the existence of more than one level of government in the country.

• In India, the governments are at the state level and at the centre and Panchayati Raj is the 3^rd tier of government.
• Under Federalism the states are not merely agents of the federal government but draw their authority from the Constitution as well.
• In short, the Indian Constitution defines the power of each government at each level and at every tier.

2. Parliamentary Form of government: The Indian Constitution guarantees universal adult suffrage for all citizens as at the time of making the Constitution, the members of Constituent Assembly felt that freedom struggle had prepared the masses for universal adult suffrage and that this would encourage a democratic mindset and break the clutches of traditional caste, class and gender hierarchies. This means the people of India have a direct role in electing their representatives.

• Also, every citizen of the country, irrespective his/her social background, can also contest in elections.
• The representatives are accountable to the people.

3. Separation of power: As per the Indian Constitution there are 3 organs of the state. That are

• The Legislative
• The Executive
• The judiciary.
• The legislative refers to our elected representatives.
• The Executives are the groups of people who are responsible for the implementation of laws and run­ning of the government.
• The Constitution states that each of these organs should exercise different powers.
• Each organ acts as a check on the organs of the state and this ensures the balance of Power between the 3 organs.

4. Fundamental Rights: This section of the India Constitution has often been referred to as the ‘conscience’. The Fundamental Rights protect the citizens against any arbitrary and absolute exercise of power by the state.

• The Indian Constitution guarantees the Fundamental Rights of individuals against the state as well as against other individuals.
• Various minorities communities have expressed the need for the Constitution to include the rights that would protect their group. Therefore the Indian Constitution also guarantees the rights of minorities against the majority.
• In addition to Fundamental Rights, the Constitution of India also consists of a section called The Directive Principle of State Policy.
• The Directive Principle of State Policy (D.P.S.P) was designed to ensure greater social and economic reformers and also to serve as a guide to the independent Indian state to institute laws and policies that would help in reducing the poverty of the masses.

5. Secularism: A secular state is a state which never officially promotes any type of religion as the state religion and India is one of the secular states that officially does not have any religion.

• The Constitution plays crucial role in laying out ideas that citizens would adhere to including the representatives that we elect to rule us.
• Often a major change in the Constitution means a change in the fundamental nature of the country.

The Indian Constitution Class 8 CBSE Notes Important Terms

Arbitrary: Arbitrary is a functioning which based on a desire or idea only rather than reason. Our Con­stitution is prevented arbitrary functioning.

Ideal: A goal or a principle in its most excellent or perfect form.

Polity: A society has an organized political structure. India is a democratic polity.

Sovereign: Possessing supreme or ultimate power.

Tyranny: The cruel and unjust use of power or authority.

Trafficking: The practice of the illegal buying and selling of different commodities across the National boundaries.

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The Changing World of Visual Arts Class 8 Notes Social Science History Chapter 10

CBSE Class 8 History Chapter 10 Notes Understanding the Lesson

1. Changes in the world of visual arts during the colonial period are linked to the wider history of colonialism and nationalism.

2. Several new art forms, styles, materials and techniques were creatively adapted by the Indian artists for local patrons and markets, in elite and popular circles during the time period of colonial rule.

3. European artists came to India along with the British traders and rulers and new styles and norms of painting were brought by them. The pictures produced by them became widely popular in Europe and helped shaping up of western perception of India.

4. European artists brought the idea of Realism with them.

5. The artists from Europe used oil paintings that enables artists to produce images that looked real.

6. Subjects painted were varied but invariably they seemed emphasising the superiority of Britain.

7. ‘Picturesque’ landscape painting was a style of painting that depicted India as a quaint land to be explored by travelling British artists. Its landscape was rugged and wild, seemingly untamed by the human hands.

8. Thomas Daniell and William Daniell were the most famous artists who painted within the tradition of ‘Picturesque’.

9. Portrait painting was a tradition of art that become immensely popular in colonial India.

10. Colonial portraits were life-size images that looked lifelike and real.

11. The size itself projected the importance of patrons who commissioned these portraits.

12. This new style of portraiture also served as ideal means displaying the lavish lifestyles, wealth and status that empire generated.

13. In search of profitable commissions, many European painters came to India.

14. Many Indian Nawabs too began commissioning imposing oil portraits by the European painters.

15. Muhammad Ali Khan was a British pensionary who became dependent of the East India and has commissioned to visiting European artists in his court.

16. There was third category of imperial art called History painting that sought to dramatise and recreate

17. various episodes of British imperial history, and enjoyed great prestige and popularity during the late 18^th and early 19^th century.

18. British victories in India served as rich material for history painters in Britain.

19. One of the I^st victory paintings was produced by Francis Hayman in 1762 and was placed on public display in the Vauxhall gardens in London. It showed how Robert Clive was welcomed by Mir Jafar and his troops after the Battle of Plassey.

20. Then the celebration painting in which British military triumph seen after they defeated Tipu Sultan of Mysore, the most powerful enemy in 1799 at the famous battle of Seringapatam.

• The painting dramatizes the event and glorifies the British triumphs.

21. Imperial Historical paintings sought to create a public memory of imperial triumphs and the victories that had to be remembered implanted in the memories of the people of India and Britain.

22. Tipu continued to encourage the local traditions of art and had his walls of palace painted by the local artists. The walls of his place at Seringapatam were painted with Mural paintings.

23. The local miniature artists at Murshidabad began adopting element of European realism.

24. With the lost of influence and wealth by the local rulers they were unable to support the painters and pay them to paint for the court.

25. In search of earning, the artists turned to the British.

26. The local painters producing a waste number of images of local plants and animals, historical buildings and monuments, festivals and processions, traders and crafts castes and communities were collected eagerly by the East India Company officials and came to be known as company paintings.

27. A whole new world of popular and developed art was seen in many cities of India.

28. In Bengal around the pilgrimage centre of the temple of Kalighat, local village scroll painters and potters began developing a new style of art.

29. Village artists settled in the city at a very exact time when the cities appeared as an opportunity where people could come and make new living.

30. Village Patuas and Kumors, on shifting to Kalighat, continued these works on mythological themes and produced images of gods and goddeses.

31. Kalighat artists, responding to the world around produced painting on social and political themes.

32. Kalighat pictures were painted in large numbers and sold in the market. The images were engraved in wooden blocks. The carved block was inked pressed against paper and then the woodcut paints that were produced were coloured by hand. In this process, many copies could be produced from the same block.

33. The setup of mechanical press in the different parts of India allowed prints to be produced in a larger numbers and sold at cheap price in market.

34. The Calcutta art studio is one of the most successful press set up in late 19^th century and produced lifelike images of eminent Bengali personalities as well as mythological pictures.

35. Towards the end of the 19^th century, a strong connection has been established between art and nationalism. Raja Ravi Varma from the family of Maharajas of Travapcore in Kerala was the I^st artist who tried creating a style that was both modern and national.

36. From 1880’s Ravi Varma’s mythological paintings became the rage among the Indian princes and art collectors, who filled their palace galleries with his works.

37. Picture production printing press was set up by Ravi Varma responding to huge popularity and appeal of his paintings.

•  The picture production team was set up on the outskirts of Bombay.

38. Bengal saw a new group of nationalist artists who gathered around Abanindranath Tagore (1871 – 1951), the nephew of Rabindranath Tagore.

39. The Bengal group reflected art of Raja Ravi Varma by claiming it westernised and declaring that such styles were unsuitable for depicting the nation ancient myths and legends.

40. The Bengal group broke away from the convention of oil paintings and the realistic style and turned for inspiration to the medieval Indian tradition of miniature painting and the ancient art of Mural painting of Ajanta caves.

41. The groups were even influenced with Japanese artists who visited India during that time for developing an Asian art movement.

42. The effort of defining about what ought to be an authentic. Indian style of art continued.

43. After the 1920’s, a new generation of artists broke away from the style popularized by Abanindranath Tagore.

44. As the debate continued, new movements of art grew with the change in the styles of art.

The Changing World of Visual Arts Class 8 CBSE Notes Important Terms

Convention: An accepted norm or style

Engraving: A picture printed onto paper from a piece of wood or metal into which the design or drawing has been cut.

Portrait: A picture of a person in which the face and its expression is prominent. Portraiture: The art of making portraits.

Commission: To formally choose someone to do special piece of work usually against payment.

Mural: A wall painting.

Perspective: The way that objects appear smaller when they are further away and the way parallel lines appear to meet each other at a point in the distance.

Life-study: Study of human figures from living models who pose for the artists.

Notes of History Class 8 Chapter 10 Time Period

1762: One of the first history paintings was produced by Francis Hayman.

1770: Muhammad Ali Khan became a dependent pensioner of the East India Company.

1780: Tipu and Hidar Ali defeated the English troops.

1785: Thomas Deniell& William Deniell (famous artists) came in India.

1799: Tipu Sultan was finally defeated at the famous battle of Srirangapatnam.

1904: A famous book called ‘The Ideals of the East’ published in Japan.

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Human Resource Class 8 Notes Social Science Geography Chapter 6

CBSE Class 8 Geography Chapter 6 Notes Understanding the Lesson

1. Human Resource is the ultimate resource as healthy, educated and motivated people develop resources as per their requirements and people are a nation’s greatest resources.

2. Human resources differ in their educational levels, age and sex and unequally distributed over the world.

3. The way in which people are spread across the earth surface is known as the pattern of population distribution. The distribution of the world’s population is extremely uneven. As some areas of the world are very populated and some are sparely populated.

4. More people live north of the Equator than south of the Equator. Almost three-quarters of the world’s people live in two continents Asia and Africa. 60% of the world’s people stay in just 10 countries.

5. Population density: The number of people living in a unit area of the earth’s surface.

6. Factors that affect the distribution of population are:

• Topography
• Climate
• Soil
• Water
• Minerals.

7. These are the subcategory of the major factors that are Geographical factors important for the distribution.

8. The other major factors are social, cultural and economic factors.

9. Population change refers to change in the number of people during a specific time and the world’s population has never been stable.

10. The reasons behind the growth of population was that there were availability of better food supplies and medicine.

11. Births are usually measured using the birth rate i.e. the number of live births per 1000 people.

12. Death are usually measured using the death rate i.e. the number of deaths per 1000 people.

13. Migration refers to the movement of the people in and out of an area.

14. Natural growth rate is the difference between the birth rate and the death rate of a country, and population increase in the world is mainly due to rapid increase in natural growth rate.

15. Emigrants are people who leave a country and Immigrants are the ones who arrive in a country.

16. General trend followed during international migration is from the less developed nations to the more developed nations that too in search of better employment opportunities.

17. Rates of population growth vary across the world.

18. Population composition refers to the structure of the population. The composition helps us in knowing the number of males or females, their age group and the education they have, do they have employment or what are the income levels and health conditions there.

19. Population pyramid is something special and interesting it is the way of studying the population composition and the population pyramid is also known as Age-sex pyramid. Its shape tells about the people their children (below 15 yrs), the aged people (above 65 yrs) and also it reflects the number of deaths.

20. Population pyramid also tells about the dependents in the country which have two groups. The young i.e. aged below 15 yrs and elderly, the one aged over 65 yrs.

21. The skilled, spirited and hopeful young people endowed with a positive outlook are the future of any nation.

Human Resource Class 8 CBSE Notes Important Terms

Life expectancy: It is the number of years that an average person can expect to live.

Migration: It is the movement in which people move within a country or between countries.

Natural growth rate: The difference between the birth rate and death rate of a country is called the natural growth rate.

Emigrants: These are the people who leave a country.

Emigration: When a person leaves a country.

Immigration: When a person enters a new country.

Rem-migration: When person leaves a country.