Prasanna

Here we are providing Class 11 Geography Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 3 Drainage System. Important Questions for Class 11 Geography are the best resource for students which helps in class 11 board exams.

Important Questions for Class 11 Geography Chapter 3 Drainage System

Drainage System Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What is drainage?
Answer:
The flow of water through well-defined channels is known as drainage.

Question 2.
Where is the dendritic drainage pattern found in India?
Answer:
In Great plains of North India.

Question 3.
Give the name of two rivers of Central India.
Answer:
Godavari and Krishna.

Question 4.
Name the three rivers that flow into the Arabian Sea.
Answer:
Narmada, Tapi and Mahi.

Question 5.
What type of drainage pattern is found in the Thar desert?
Answer:
In Thar desert centripetal drainage pattern is found.

Question 6.
Give two examples of antecedent rivers.
Answer:
Brahmaputra and Kosi are the two antecedent rivers.

Question 7.
What do you mean by water regime?
Answer:
The seasonal flow of water in a river is called its water regime.

Question 8.
Name two rivers of Central India.
Answer:
Sind and Chambal.

Question 9.
When do peninsular rivers have maximum flow?
Answer:
The peninsular rivers have maximum flow in the rainy season.

Question 10.
Name the main watershed of peninsular rivers.
Answer:
The Western Ghats.

Question 11.
Name the two west-flowing rivers Qf peninsular India.
Answer:
Narmada and Tapi are the west-flowing rivers.

Question 12.
Which river falls into the Gulf of Khambat?
Answer:
Mahi river falls into the Gulf of Khambat.

Question 13.
Name the three types of Himalayan river systems.
Answer:

1. The Indus system,
2. The Ganga system,
3. The Brahmaputra system.

Question 14.
What is a river basin?
Answer:
The watersheds of large rivers are called river basins.

Question 15.
Name the two sections of the western coastal plain.
Answer:
Konkan coast and Malabar coast are the two sections of the western coastal plain.

Question 16.
What is cuspate deltas?
Answer:
The rivers like Ebro of Spain which form the tooth-like delta at their mouth is known as cuspate delta.

Question 17.
What is a radial pattern of drainage?
Answer:
When the river radiates from a hill, the pattern is called radial.

Question 18.
Why the Himalayan rivers are perennial?
Answer:
Because the Himalayan rivers rise from glaciers.

Question 19.
Why the rivers meander and change their courses?
Answer:
Variable nature of the terrain and geological conditions cause the rivers to meander and change their courses.

Question 20.
Name the five main tributaries of the Indus river.
Answer:
The Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas, the Satluj and the Jhelum.

Question 21.
What do you mean by ‘punched’?
Answer:
‘Punched’ is the name given to the rivers of Punjab – the Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum.

Question 22.
Name two streams which form the Chenab river.
Answer:
Chandra and Bhaga.

Question 23.
Which states are drained by the river Ganga?
Answer:
Uttranchal, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal are drained by the river Ganga.

Question 24.
Name the main river basins of the peninsula.
Answer:
Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri are the four main basins of the peninsula.

Question 25.
Give the three important utilities of the Indian rivers.
Answer:

1. Irrigation,
2. Navigation, and
3. Water power generation.

Drainage System Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Define a drainage system.
Answer:
The flow of water through well-defined channels is known as drainage. The network of such channels is called a drainage system. The drainage system includes the area drained by the river and its tributaries. The drainage pattern is of various types. The drainage pattern of an area is the product of the natural drainage pattern.

Question 2.
What are the various types of drainage patterns?
Answer:
The drainage pattern is of various types:

1. Dendritic-When the drainage develops similar to branches of a tree.
2. Radial – When the rivers radiate from a hill.
3. Centripetal – When the rivers flow into a lake or a depression
4. Trellis – When primary tributaries flow more or less parallel to one another and the secondary tributaries join from sides more or less a right angle.

Question 3.
Classify the Indian drainage on the basis of discharge of water,
Answer:
It may be classified into:

1. The Arabian Sea drainage,
2. Bay of Bengal drainage.

These two groups are separated from each other through the Delhi Ridge, the Aravallis, the Sahyadri and Amarkantak known as water divide.

Question 4.
What are the river basin and watershed?
Answer:
A river basin is a form of natural or artificial depression. The total area of the land drained by a river and its tributaries is known as a river basin. On the other hand, watershed means water-parting. Watershed may or may not be sharply defined, separating two continuous drainage areas from the head-stream flow in different directions into different river systems or river basins.

Question 5.
Give some characteristic features of the Kaveri basin.
Answer:
The Kaveri rises in Brahamgiri hills of Coorg district in Karnataka. It is 800 km. long and drains an area of67900 km2. The river carries water throughout the year with comparatively less fluctuation than other peninsular rivers.

Question 6.
Why flood is a frequent feature in the Brahmaputra basin?
Answer:
The Brahmaputra is one of the largest rivers in the world. It is a trans-Himalayan river. It rises in Kailash range near Mansarovar lake. It flows eastward longitudinally covering a distance of 1200 km. It forms a gorge in Namcha Barwa mountains. In India, it enters forming a gorge. It receives Dihang and Lohitas its tributaries. The characteristic feature of Brahmaputra is its flood. It is due to the fact that both the Purvanchal Himalayas and the Shillong plateau receive heavy rainfall.

Question 7.
Why do the rivers on the western coast have no deltas?
Answer:
The rivers over the western coast transport lot of sediment with them but do not form a delta, because they are unable to deposit this sediment at the coast. They are very swift due to the deep slope of the ghats and narrow coastal plain. Therefore they do not form deltas.

Question 8.
What is the difference between delta and estuary?
Answer:

Dendritic	Trellis
In the dendritic pattern, the drainage develops similar to the branches of a tree.	In this pattern, the primary tributaries flow more or less parallel to one another and secondary tributaries join from the side.

Question 9.
What are the east-flowing rivers?
Answer:
The Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri are east-flowing rivers. These rivers are generally large and form huge deltas near their mouths. These rivers discharge themselves into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers do not flow through troughs.

Question 10.
What do you mean by cusecs and comes?
Answer:
The discharge of the volume of water flowing in the river is measured overtimes. It is measured either in cusecs or incomes. When the water is measured in cubic feet per second it is called cusecs. On the other hand, when the flowing water is measured in cubic metre per second it is called comes.

Question 11.
What are the characteristic features of west-flowing rivers?
Answer:
The Narmada and Tapi are the west-flowing rivers.

1. These rivers do not form deltas.
2. They flow westward on the peninsular plateau, are small but known as rivers.
3. Narmada and Tapi flowthrough troughs which have been formed due to faulting.
4. These rivers discharge themselves into the Arabian Sea.

Question 12.
What do you mean by consequent rivers?
Answer:
The Indus, Satluj, Kosi are the trans-Himalayan rivers. These rivers are known as consequent rivers. These rivers maintain their originals shape, deposit. The rise of the land due to folding rivers keep on flowing in the original direction. These rivers are older than the fold mountains. Rivers cut deep gorges due to down-cutting.

Drainage System Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Why do the rivers on the western coast have no deltas, even though they transport a lot of sediment with them? State three main characteristics of Himalayan and peninsular rivers.
Answer:
The rivers over the western coast transport lot of sediment with them but do not form a delta, because they are unable to deposit this sediment at the coast. They are very swift due to the deep slope of the ghats and narrow coastal plain. Therefore they do not form deltas.

Characteristics of Himalayan rivers – The characteristics of the Himalayan rivers are:

1. The Himalayan river system consists of some longest rivers.
2. The catchment areas and river basins of Himalayan rivers are large.
3. These rivers originate from the snow-covered areas and receive water from rainfall as well as from snowmelt. They are periodic.
4. These rivers are useful for irrigation and navigation.

Question 2.
Differentiate between Himalayan rivers and the Peninsular rivers.
Answer:

The Himalayan Rivers	the Peninsular rivers
(1) The catchment area of the Himalayan river system is very large spreading over hundreds of square metres.	(1) The peninsular rivers have catchment area comparative to the Himalayan rivers.
(2) The Himalayan rivers flow into deep gorges in the mountainous regions and show meandering. These rivers have the intensive erosional capacity and carry huge loads of silt and sands annually.	(2) Peninsular rivers have the erosional capacity and flow in large graded slow valleys. These rivers flow over hard rock beds and show very little meandering.
(3) These rivers are perennial because they derive their water from snow and rainfall. The Himalayan rivers consist of three systems. The Indus system rivers flow towards the south-west and drain into the Arabian Sea. The rivers of Ganga and Brahmaputra systems flow eastward into drain into the Bay of Bengal. They form deltas.	(3) These rivers are seasonal. They are rainfed. They flow eastward on the plateau and drain into the Bay of Bengal. Narmada and Tapi are west-flowing rivers which flow into rift valleys.

Question 3.
Write a short note on Balanced water on the Ganga basin.
Answer:
Ganga is the most important river of the northern plain, from both the point of view of its basin and cultural significance. It rises in the Gangotri glacier nearGomukh in Uttarkashi district of Uttranchal. Here it is known as Bhagirathi. At Dev Prayag, the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda and it is named as Ganga. Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar and flows southwards and south-east splitting into two distributaries namely Bhagirathi and the Hugh: The river is 2,525 km in length. The Ganga basin covers about 9,52,000 km2 in India alone.

Question 4.
Describe the formation of meanders.
Answer:
A river in its flood plain develops loops in its course and shows characteristic features. When water flows under gravity, it seldom flows straight for any long-distance and a winding course develops. The irregularities of the ground force the river to swing in loops. These loops are known as meanders. The ‘meander’ is a term derived from the winding river.

Thus meander is t. loop-like structure or curves in the river course. It is developed by lateral erosion.

Question 5.
The Indian rivers are useful for the country. Comment on the statement.
Answer:
A large number of rivers carry the rainwater of India into the sea. The total volume of annual precipitation in our country is approximately 37,00,400 million cubic metres. Out of this 45% flows through 113 rivers. However, for uneven topography and flow characteristics, all of this is not usable. 33% of the water from the annual flow is used for irrigation.

Large rivers have great water potential. 60% of the total river flow is concentrated in the Himalayas, 16% in the central Indian rivers (the Narmada, Tapi and Mahanadi). The country has an exploitable power potential of about 41 million km.

The Ganga and Brahmaputra in the north and north-eastern part, Mahanadi in Orissa, Krishna in Andhra, Narmada and Tapi in Gujarat possess some of the important and useful waterways in the country. The most important navigation rivers are the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and the Mahanadi. The Godavari, the Krishna, the Narmada and Tapi are navigable near their mouths only.

Thus, the major usability of Indian rivers is for irrigation, power generation and navigation. Besides, the rivers also supply water to cities, villages and industrial installations.

Here we are providing Class 11 History Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 4 The Central Islamic Lands. Class 11 History Important Questions with Answers are the best resource for students which helps in class 11 board exams.

Class 11 History Chapter 4 Important Extra Questions The Central Islamic Lands

The Central Islamic Lands Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What are the sources used for the description of the Central Islamic lands?
Answer:
These are Chronicles-

• Tawarikh,
• Sira,
• Hadith and
• Tafsir-are composed of a compilation of Akhbar, Khabar, and isnad.

Other Material-

• Legal texts,
• travelogues,
• stories and poems.

Documentary-

• Arabic papyri,
• official orders,
• private correspondences.

Epigraphy-Study of inscriptions.

Numismatic–Study of coins.

Question 2.
What was Aramaic?
Answer:
It was a language of Hebrew and Arabic family or group of languages. This language can be seen on the Ashokan pillars.

Question 3.
Who was Muhammed?
Answer:
He was an Arab by culture and a merchant by profession. . His tribe was Quraysh. He was murals and therefore, chosen as chief of his tribe. Subsequently, he became a prophet to Islam.

Question 4.
How was Islam came into being in Arabia?
Answer:
It was due to the rise of Muhammed, the chief of the Quraysh tribe as a prophet and with his declaration as rasul (messenger) of Cod.

Question 5.
Who was considered a member of Umma?
Answer:
The man who offers Salat, generous to the poor (i.e. gives alms) and keeps him away from any theft and piracy.

Question 6.
Whether you think, raid and loot of caravans was not theft but labor?
Answer:
Actually, Islam has considered theft confine to mere defraud or cheat not involving the use of force, tricks, etc. which tantamounted to exhort things that genuinely and legally not one’s owned or earned.

Question 7.
What would the Umma do in Islamic concern?
Answer:
Umma or the community of believers in God would bear witness (Shahada) to the existence of the religion before God as well as before members of other religious communities.

Question 8.
Who are Muslims?
Answer:
Followers of Islamic order or religion are Muslims because since Prophet Muhammed’s ruling, coincide religion made integral parts to constitution and raids for booty were not considered “theft” however; abstain from theft was the feature of eligibility to become a member of Umma.

Question 9.
Who was Marsalis?
Answer:
Non-Arabs were addressed as Marsalis. These became members of Arab tribes through the patronage of prominent tribesmen. They were discriminated against by, Arab tribes on several counts.

Question 10.
Who brought messages to Muhammed?
Answer:
He was a divine figure reckoned with Archangel Gabriel (Jibril). His first word was Iqra from which has come to the term Quran.

Question 11.
What is considered in Islamic cosmology?
Answer:
Angels are considered as one of the three intelligent forms of life in the Universe. The other two are humans and Jinns.

Question 12.
Who opposed the Muslims at the beginning of Islam?
Answer:
Those were the groups of affluent Meccans. They took it as negligence to their deities, they .worship under idolatry system. They thought this new religion may bring their image till then formed in the popular down and the prosperity as well.

Question 13.
What were the basic tenets of Islam?
Answer:

1. One has to enroll with Umma (a community of believers).
2. The communist will bear witness (Shahada) to the existence of the religion before God and other religious communities.
3. The members of that community will be called Muslims.
4. The member shall have the promise of salvation on the day of judgment (iqama).
5. He will have to share the resources of the community while on earth.

Question 14.
What is Hijri Era?
Answer:
Counting of year system like B.C. in Gregorian calendar in Islamic empire is called Hijri Era. It is counted the day, Muhammed left Mecca with his followers to Medina.

Question 15.
What is written after the date of the Hijri calendar?
Answer:
AH e.g. 1427 shall be written for 2006 as the Hijri era starts from 622 CE.

Question 16.
What is the calculation formula of Hijri vis-a-vis Gregorian Christian (C) years?
Answer:
It is – (H × 32/33) + 622 = C – Christian
(C – 622) × 33/32 = H – Hijri

Eg. 2006 C.E. in Hijri shall be:-
(2006 – 622) × 33/32 = 1427 H

Question 17.
What kind of political institutions are required for consolidation and protection of the community?
Answer:
States and governments like institutions.

Question 18.
How are states and governments created?
Answer:
These are inherited from the past, borrowed from outside, or created from scratch.

Question 19.
Which kind of political order had Muhammed created?
Answer:

1. Umma converted into a wider community to include polytheists and Jews of Medina.
2. Certain modifications were done in rituals/ethical ‘ principles.
3. Alms tax (Zakat) imposed.
4. Raids (Ghazw) on Meccan caravans allowed to collect booty in order to run the expenses of an organization.

Question 20.
Whether Muhammed had waged war against any – country?
Answer:
Yes, the Muslim community under Muhammed fought ‘ against Meccans and Jews of Medina when they reacted to the raids, Muhammed conducted. As a result of the battle, Muhammed conquered Mecca.

Question 21.
Tell the expansion of the Islamic kingdom under Muhammed?
Answer:
Entire Arabia including Mecca and Medina.

Question 22.
Why did the idols get remove from Kaba?
Answer:
It was because idolatry was strongly opposed to the Islamic order.

Question 23.
To whom was the political authority of Muhammed transferred?
Answer:
It was to Umma (i.e. a community of believers). Caliphate was created later-on.

Question 24.
What was Caliphate?
Answer:
It was a governing system like an aristocracy in which the leader of the community (amir aluminum) would rule as a deputy (Khalifa) of the Prophet Muhammed.

Question 25.
Write the names of the first and third Khalifa.
Answer:
The first Caliph was Abu Bakr and the third was Uthman.

Question 26.
Describe the area expansion under the Caliphate regime in Arab.
Answer:
The regions carried under the Arab empire were-Syria, Iraq, Iran (Sasanian empire), and Egypt including the Byzantine empire. Three successful campaigns from 637-642 had brought frontiers of the Arab empire so extended.

Question 27.
What was the behavior of Muslims to Jews and Christians during the seventh century?
Answer:
The Caliph treated them as protected subjects in its constitution akin to scheduled caste and scheduled tribes treated in India’s constitution.

Question 28.
Who had formed the two sects-Shias and Sunni’s of Islam?
Answer:
Ali, the fourth Caliph fought two wars against representatives of the Meccan aristocracy. Hence, Meccan formed a sect of Sunnis, and Ali’s own sect formed Shia.

Question 29.
Who was Muawiya?
Answer:
Muawiya was a kinsman of Uthman, the third Caliph of Meccan aristocracy. He was during Ali’s regime, became governor of Syria.

Question 30.
what were the consequences of two battles fought by Ali, the fourth Caliph?
Answer:
In the first battle of the Camel (657 CE), Ali defeated Aisha, Muhammed’s wife, but in the second battle of Siffin (northern Mesopotamia), he had to enter in a truce with Muawiya, a kinsman of Uthman.

Question 31.
Who had founded the Umayyad dynasty?
Answer:
Muawiya, a kinsman of the third Caliph Uthman founded the Umayyad dynasty in 661 CE. It lasted in 750 CE i.e. about one hundred years, it ruled.

Question 32.
Who was Kharjis?
Answer:
There were the enemies of Ali, the fourth Caliph. A Kharji assassinated Ali in a mosque at Kufa in Baghdad.

Question 33.
Who had established an authoritarian rule after the ruination of the Caliphate system of the aristocracy?
Answer:
The Umayyad dynasty had founded an authoritarian ruling system. Muawiya, a kinsman of Uthman, the third Caliph was the first Umayyad Caliph. It was based on hereditary succession.

Question 34.
What were the salient features of the Umayyadian dynasty?
Answer:
The skill of statecraft or ruling and the army were the cardinal elements of that ruling system. The legacy of Islam was however maintained.

Question 35.
What were the main achievements of Abd al-Malik, an Umayyad?
Answer:
He adopted Arabic as the language of administration and circulated Islamic coinage. It was called dinar in gold and dirham in silver. The shape, symbol, and inscriptions were copied from Byzantine coin (denarius) and Iranian coin (drachm) but in the Arabic version. Dome of the Rock was built in Jerusalem.

Question 36.
How did the Umayyad dynasty meet to decline?
Answer:
There was a loop-hole in their centralization drive for Muslim monarchy (Polity) which had to meet a movement i.e. Dawa of Abbasids, another family of Meccan origin in 750 CE. The revolutionists gave it the color of religion i.e. a drive to restore the original Islam of the Prophet.

Question 37.
What were the reasons for the fall of the Umayyad dynasty?
Answer:

1. The mixed Arab-Iranian public in Khurasan (Iran) favored the revolutionists. Their demand for reduction in taxes was left unheard.
2. Iraqi soldiers in the Arab military disliked the rule of the Syrians (Umayvads).
3. Iranian Muslims (Mawalis) were upset due to racial discrimination by the Umayyads.

Question 38.
Who were Abbasids?
Answer:
They were descendants of Abbas, the Prophet’s uncle. They claimed the throne on a promise that a Messiah (Mahdi) from the family of the Prophet (Ahl al-Bayt) will liberate the populace from the oppressive regime of the Umayyads.

Question 39.
Where was the battle between the Umayyads and Abbasids took place?
Answer:
It at the bank of the river Zab in which the last Umayyad Caliph, Marwan was defeated.

Question 40.
How can you say that Abbasids also established the monarchy in the name of the Caliphate like the Umayyads?
Answer:
They maintained imperial architecture and court ceremonials of the Umayyads.

Question 41.
What reasons do you ascribe for the fall of Abbasid’s regime?
Answer:

1. Pro-Arab and Pro-Iranian conflict in the army broke out.
2. The civil war of 810 CE more fuelled factionalism.
3. Shiism competed with Sunnis for power.

Question 42.
Name some smaller dynasties after Abbasids.
Answer:
These were-

1. Tahirids in Khurasan (Iran),
2. Samanids in Transco Xiana (Turan),
3. Tulunids in Egypt and Syria.

Question 43.
Who had occupied Baghdad and when?
Answer:
Buyid rulers (Shahenshah) of the Daylam region in Iran captured Baghdad in 945 CE.

Question 44.
Who were Fatimids?
Answer:
They were belonged to the Ismaili sub-sect of Shiism and claimed rightful ruler as they were descended from the Prophet’s daughter Fatima. They conquered Egypt in 969 and established the Fatimid Caliphate.

Question 45.
Who were Turks and how did they set themselves under Umayyad and Abbasid regimes?
Answer:
Turks were nomadic tribes from the Central Asian Steppes of Turkistan extended up to the borders of China. Being skilled riders and warriors, they set themselves as soldiers and slaves under Umayyad and Abbasid regimes.

Question 46.
Who was the founder of the Turkish sultanate?
Answer:
Alptegin Ghazni in 961 CE.

Question 47.
Who had supported Mahmud Ghazni (998-1030)?
Answer:
The Abbasid Caliph supported Mahmud because he wanted to ruin Shiite power and Mahmud was eager to receive the title of Sultan from the Caliph especially because he was a slave under them earlier.

Question 48.
Who were Tughril and Chghri Beg?
Answer:
They were brothers and Seljuq Turks. Earlier, they had entered Turan as soldiers in the armies of Samanids and Qarakhanids (non-muslim Turks of farther east).

Question 49.
Why is Nishapur famous?
Answer:
Umar Khayyam, an Islamic poet born in Nishapur (Khurasan) and it was made the capital by Seljuq Turks in 1037.

Question 50.
Who had received the title of Sultan in 1055 CE?
Answer:
It was Tughril Beg, a Seljuq Turk and became ruler. The Caliph, al-Qaim awarded him the title of Sultan.

Question 51.
What were the major events that took place from the eleventh to thirteenth centuries?
Answer:
A number of conflicts one after another between European Christians and the Arab states took place during that period of two hundred years. There were called Crusades.

Question 52.
What was the reason for Christian’s dissension from Islamic society?
Answer:

1. Jerusalem, the holy place of Christian was captured by the Caliphs in 638.
2. Palestine was their holy land because Jesus was crucified and he was resurrected there.

Question 53.
What had happened in the eleventh century?
Answer:
Main events of eleventh-century were-

1. Conversion of Normans, Hungarians, and slaves into Christianity.
2. Clergy and the warrior class (i.e. the priest and the nobility) launched a drive for bringing in political stability and economic growth based on agriculture and trade.

Question 54.
What was the control imposed by the Peace of God?
Answer:

1. To reduce possibilities of armed conflict between Principalities on feudal lines.
2. To degenerate plunder and loot by splitting groups or organizations so formed.

Question 55.
What religion-based rulings were made by the Christian Priests in order to control military confrontation?
Answer:

1. Some periods declared sacred in Church’s calendar.
2. Conflicts against Churchman and the common people pronounce as sins in Christian codes.
3. Conflicting soldiers and print cities were declared enemies of God.
4. Non-believer’s (viz. non-Christians) suppression was declared as noble-deed.

Question 56.
Who had seized the sultanate of Malik Shah after his death in 1092?
Answer:
It was Byzantine emperor, Alexius-I. He regained Asia Minor and northern Syria.

Question 57.
Which wars were designated as Crusades?
Answer:
The wars fought between 1095 and 1291 i.e. for the period about one hundred years were crusades. These were wars between Muslims and Christians.

Question 58.
How did the first crusade come into being?
Answer:
Pope Urban 111 joined Alexius I, the Syrian emperor, and launched the first crusade in 1090-98.

Question 59.
What have the Muslim writers mentioned Christians in their records about the first crusade in which Christians seized Antioch in Syria and cleared Jerusalem?
Answer:
Christians have been mentioned as firing or firangi and this attack was a Frankish invasion.

Question 60.
What was called Outremer?
Answer:
It was the joint name of territories (four in number) conquered by Christians in the region of Syria-Palestine.

Question 61.
What was the cause of the second crusade in 1145-49?
Answer:
The Turks had captured Edessa in 1144 CE and Pope accumulated the support of the German and French army.

Question 62.
What was Jihad?
Answer:
It was also crusaded but conducted by Muslims. The first Jihad was fought in 1107 and Jerusalem was regarded by Salah al-Din (Saladin).

Question 63.
How was the behave of Saladin against the Christians?
Answer:
It was humane yet Churches were turned into mosques and custody of the Church (Holy Sepulchre i.e. main Church) was given to Christians.

Question 64.
What were the consequences of the third crusade?
Answer:
The consequences of the third crusade were that Chr’ ‘tians could regain Palestine and an unrestricted monument to Jerusalem for pilgrims.

Question 65.
Who had again driven the Christian away from Palestine?
Answer:
It was the Mamluks, the rulers of Egypt. He drove them finally in 1291. No crusades were fought thereafter as Christians understood it a futile and e\er failed strategy or no time ripen for final freedom to Palestine.

Question 66.
What was the land revenue called in Islamic lands?
Answer:
It was Kharaj which varied from half to a fifth of the products according to the condition of cultivation. Muslim cultivated land was charged with one-tenth (Ushr) of the product under the Kharaj system of taxation.

Question 67.
What was Iqtas?
Answer:
Revenue assignment to the official in lieu of salary was called Iqtas. According to this system, the officers (mainly Jagirdars/ Army officers) were allowed a collection of Kharaj from their territories assigned and later to salary requirement.

Question 68.
Name some crops grown by peasants in Islamic lands?
Answer:
Crops like cotton, oranges, bananas, watermelons, spinach, and brinjals were mainly grown.

Question 69.
What was the name of cities established for soldiers?
Answer:
These were called Misra (garrison cities). Arab soldiers were called Jund.

Question 70.
Name the two building complexes in the center of the city.
Answer:
It was masjid al-Jami (congregational mosque) and suq (the central market place).

Question 71.
What was Geniza (Ghaniza)?
Answer:
It was a sealed room containing a huge collection of Jewish documents. It had been discovered in Fustat where Ben Ezra Synagogue had been erected.

Question 72.
What kinds of documents were found in Geniza?
Answer:
These were personal letters between merchants, family, and friends, contracts, promises of dowry, bank documents, laundry lists, and other (common documents).

Question 73.
Wherefrom the gold and silver obtained in Islamic lands?
Answer:
Gold was obtained from Africa (Sudan) and silver from Central Asia (Zarafshan Valley).

Question 74.
What was the greatest contribution of the Muslim world to medieval economic life?
Answer:
It was the development of superior methods of payment and business organization. Letters of credit including cheques (Sakk) and bill of exchange (Suftaja) were adopted to transfer money from one place or individual to another.

Question 75.
What was Muzarba?
Answer:
It was formal business arrangements in which capital was given to traveling merchants and shared profits and losses in agreed proportion between traveling merchants and the people engaged in businesses other than trading in distant lands.

Question 76.
What was the trick followed in order to escape from the law which restricted interest-bearing transactions (riba)?
Answer:
That process was called Hiya. Under it, money was borrowed in one type of currency (coin) and paid in another. Thus, interest in the disguise of the commission was earned on currency exchange (bill of exchange).

Question 77.
What was the way told by religious scholars to know the will of God?
Answer:
It was Ilm derived from the Quran and the model behavior of the Prophet (Sunna).

Question 78.
In what work, the Ulamas had devoted themselves?
Answer:
They devoted themselves to writing tafsir and hadith and some among them had preferred Sharia (the straight path) to govern the relationship of Muslims with God through ibadat and with the rest of humanity through social affairs (Muamalat).

Question 79.
What were the four schools of law (Mazhab)?
Answer:
These were-Maliki, Hanafi, Shafii, and Hanbali. These were named after the leading jurists (faqih).

Question 80.
What is Quran?
Answer:
It is a collection of messages (revelations) which God sent to the Prophet Muhammed between 610 and 632 first in Mecca and then in Medina.

Question 81.
What was called customary laws and laws of the state on political and social order?
Answer:
These were-Urf and Siyaysa Sharia.

Question 82.
Who were religious-minded people in medieval Islam?
Answer:
Those people were Sufis. They got deeper personal knowledge of God through asceticism (Rahbaniya) and mysticism (Lasawwuf).

Question 83.
What was pantheism?
Answer:
It was the idea of the oneness of God and his creation which implies that the human soul must be united with its maker.

Question 84.
What was the influence of Greek philosophy and science on Islam?
Answer:
An alternative vision of God was developed in the Islamic approach.

Question 85.
Which subjects were taught in the schools of Alexandria, Syria, and Mesopotamia?
Answer:
These were-Greek philosophy, mathematics, and medicines.

Question 86.
What effect the study of new subjects had made on Islamic beliefs.
Answer:
Scholars with a theological bent of mind (Mutazila) used Greek logic, and methods of reasoning (Kalam) to defend Islamic beliefs.

Question 87.
What is Shahnama (Book of Kings)?
Answer:
It is an epic of 50,000 couplets. It is an anthology of traditions and legends (Rustam’s story etc.). It was composed by Firdausi.

Question 88.
Name some history books of Islamic lands.
Answer:

1. Ansab al-Ashraf (Genealogies of the Nobles) by Baladhuri and,
2. Tarikh al-Rusul Wal Muluk (History of Prophets and Kings) by Tabari.

The Central Islamic Lands Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Discuss the structure of the mosque built during Islamic regimes?
Answer:
The main features of a mosque were-

1. Sahn (an open courtyard),
2. Vaulted Hall,
3. mihrab (a niche),
4. Minbar or mimbar (a pulpit),
5. Minaret (a tower).

Central courtyard (Iwan) can be seen in caravan, saris, hospitals, and palaces e.g. Khirabat- al-Mafjar (Palestine) and Qusayr Amra (Jordan).

Question 2.
What were the two art forms that emerged in the Islamic religion?
Answer:
These art forms were-

1. Calligraphy (Art of beautiful writing) and,
2. Arabesque (geometric and vegetal designs).

Calligraphic art has been best preserved in manuscripts of the Quran dating from the eighth and ninth centuries. Plant and floral designs, based on the idea of the garden, were used in buildings and book illustrations.

Question 3.
What is excellent or unique in the history of the Central Islamic lands?
Answer:
A unique in the history of the central Islamic lands was a merger of three important aspects of human civilization i.e. religion, community, and politics into one. We can see them as three circles that merge and appear as one in the seventh century. It could separate in the next five centuries. Later on, the influence of Islam over state and government became nominal and politics involved many things that have no sanction in religion and thus, the circles of religion and community were overlapped by politics. Politics became a separate circle. The only way the circles of religion and community could have separated was through the progressive secularisation of Muslim society. Philosophers and Sufis advocated this, suggesting that civil society should be made autonomous and rituals be replaced by private spirituality.

Question 4.
Describe a morning scene in Basra.
Answer:
Basra is a city that falls in IraQuestion Here were settled Arab soldiers (Jind) who formed the backbone of the administration. It was a garrison city. There were a number of companies (branches of troops) parading in the morning. Military headquarter we see here. We could see them doing prayer in a mosque because such was made mandatory under Islamic administration.

Question 5.
What knowledge could one obtain from Geniza records? Explain.
Answer:
Geniza records consisted of over two lakh fifty thousand manuscripts and fragments dating back from the Fa timid, Ayyubid, and early Mamluk periods. Most of the documents were written in Judaeo-Arabic, a version of Arabic written in Hebrew characters that were commonly used by Jewish communities throughout the medieval Mediterranean. These provide rich insight into personal and economic experiences and into Mediterranean and Islamic culture. These suggest that the business skills and commercial techniques of merchants of the medieval Islamic world were more advanced than those of their European counterparts. On the basis of a study on these documents, Goitein composed a multi-volume history of the Mediterranean, and Amitav Ghosh composed “In an Antique Land.”

Question 6.
Discuss the structure of city settlement in the Central Islamic Lands.
Answer:
Cities that flourished in the central Islamic lands can be described as-

1. Capital cities,
2. Garrison cities.

Capital cities were founded by Caliphs like Abbasid in Baghdad, Medina. Garrison cities were Kufa and Basra in Iraq, Fustat, and Cairo in Egypt. Apart from these cities, there were developed towns such as Damascus, Isfahan, and Samarqand.

Formation of a city-In the middle of the city, there were two building complexes-

1. the congregation mosque (masjid al-Jami) and
2. the central market place (suq).

There were shops, merchants’ lodgings (fandub), and offices of the money changer. Administrators, scholars, and merchants lived close to the center of the city. In its outer circle, there were residences for ordinary citizens and soldiers. Churches, Synagogues, and mosques were built everywhere at a small ’ distance. There were subsidiary markets and public baths in these cities. Homes of Urban poor people, vegetable market, caravan stations, and unclean shops (tanning and butchering) were at the outskirts of the cities. There were inns and cemeteries beyond the city walls.

Question 7.
Describe the condition of agriculture in the Central Islamic Lands.
Answer:
Condition of Agriculture

1. It was the principal occupation of the settled populations.
2. Ownership inland was that of small and big farmers. The large estates were owned by the state:
3. Kharaj was the land revenue paid by the peasants. It was varied from half to a fifth of the products according to the conditions of cultivation (i.e. irrigated, fallow, fertile, sandy, etc.). The concession was given to Muslim peasants as they were charged in proportion to one-tenth (Ushr) of the produce.
4. Irrigation system supported by the state in Nile Valley. Construction of dams, canals, and digging of wells given priority. Tax concession was given to the people who brought forest land under cultivation. Crops like cotton, oranges, bananas, watermelons, Spinach, and brinjals were grown and exported to Europe.

Question 8.
What was the treatment of Franks (Firangis or Christians) with Muslims in Central Islamic Lands? Explain.
Answer:
We can conclude about the treatment of Christians with Muslims as mixed type. It differs from one territory to another. It has been seen that the earliest of the crusaders settled down in Syria and Palestine were more tolerant to Muslims than those who came later. The early comers were properly associated with Muslims hence, there was fraternity among them. An instance of their treatment with the Muslim community has been given in this chapter extracted from Kitab al- Inbar. The author says that he had a friend Chief Theodore Sophia’s in Antioch.

He once was invited by that friend. He met a retired old knight who owned property in Antioch. Here he offered not Frankish but Muslim food to him. He heard him saying while on the dining table that he had appointed an Egyptian woman as a cook and ate never the pork meat. However, when they were strolling in the market place, a crowd of Franks collected against him to attack. That was because they mistook him for another Arab who once had killed their brother. Anyhow, his friend could cool them down by saying that the author was a businessman.

Hence, a mixed type of treatment with Muslims in territories under Franks can be concluded.

Question 9.
Enumerate the business and trade in the Central Islamic Lands.
Answer:
The Central Islamic lands witness ample growth in business and trade particularly, the topography supported their trading maneuver. Muslim empire was spread between the Mediterranean and the Indian ocean. The Arab and Iranian traders, therefore, monopolized regularly the maritime trade between China, India, and Europe.

Two major routes of that trade were-

1. The Red Sea and
2. The Persian Gulf.

Spices, textile, porcelain, and gunpowder were shipped from India and China to Aden and Aydhab i.e. ports at the Mediterranean. The ports of the second route i.e. the Persian Gulf were-Siraf and Basra.

Camel caravans were used to transport the mercantile from the ports of Aden and Aydhab of the first route and Siraf Aijd Basra of the second route to the warehouses (Makhan) of Baghdad i.e. the capital of Abbasids Caliphate. Warehouses were also established in Damascus and Aleppo.

It was then disbursed for local consumption or onward transmission. Jewish merchants had handled exports to Europe from the port of Alexandria. Subsequently, Cairo emerged as a center of commerce which had increased the importance of the Red Sea route. In order to buy paper and other goods of Central Asia origin, Iranian merchants set-out from Baghdad along the Silk Route to China via the oasis cities of Bukhara and Samarqand. Bukhara and Samarqand were the cities linking commercial networks extended north to Russia and Scandinavia. For exchange of European goods (fur and slaves).

Question 10.
Describe the consequences of crusades conducted by Christians and Muslims during the period between 1095 and 1291.
Answer:
These crusades left a lasting impact on two aspects of Christian-Muslim relations. One was the harsher attitude of the Muslim state towards its Christian subjects which resulted from the bitter memories of the conflict as well as the need for security in areas of mixed populations. The other impact was the greater influence of Italian mercantile communities from Pisa, Genoa, and Venice in the trade between the East and West even after the restoration of Muslim power.

Question 11.
Discuss the causes of the fall of the Caliphate?
Answer:
Following reasons can be ascribed for the break-up of the Caliphate-

1. Baghdad was not a central place hence, it had become difficult to maintain control over the distant provinces.
2. The civil war of 810 between supporters of Amin and Mamun (sons of the Caliph Harun al-Rashid) created a new power block of Turkish slave officers (Mamluk).
3. The confrontation started between Shiism and Sunnis.
4. Minor dynasties such as Tahirids, Samanids, Tulunids in Khurasan, Turan, Egypt, and Syria rose and the Caliphate limited to Central Iraq and Western Iran. Baghdad also was seized by a Shiite clan of Daylam (Iran). Those were Buyids.

Thus, the Caliphate system was shattered and the sultanate system established. Fatimids also had conquered Egypt in 969.

Question 12.
Discuss the achievements of the Caliphate?
Answer:
It was a system of polity in which the leader of the community(amir al-mining) became the deputy (Khalifa) of the

Prophet Muhammed. The objectives of the Caliphate were-

• to return control over the tribes constituting the Umma and,
• to raise resources for the state.

This system was adopted after the death of the Prophet Muhammed. The three powerful Caliphs were-Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman. The first Caliph Abu Bakr suppressed the revolts by a series of campaigns. The second Caliph Umar shaped the Umna’s policy of expansion of power. He conducted raids and conquered the lands belonging to Byzantine Empire in the West and the Sasanian empire in the east. Religious conflicts between Christians and Zoroastrians and revolts by the aristocracy weakened these two empires. The Arabs brought Syria, Iraq, Iran, and Egypt under the control of Medina.

The Arab empire under Uthman witnessed control over the vast territory between the Nile and the Oxus. Soon conflicts over the distribution of resources and offices began touching climax. Blind favor to Quraysh provoked opposition in Iraq and Egypt simultaneous to the opposition in Medina which resulted from the assassination of Uthman. Thus, Ali became the fourth Caliph. Here, two sects developed i.e.Shias and Sunnis. Ali defeated Muhammed’s wife, Aisha in the battle of the Camel in 657 but could not suppress Muawiya, a kinsman of Uthaman. In the battle at Siffin (northern Mesopotamia), Ali had to resort to a truce and it split his followers. The opposite group Kharji’s assassinated Ali at Kufa. Thus, there was established Umayyad dynasty which lasted till 750 C.E.

Question 13.
Who were Umayyads and how did they manage the centralization of polity?
Answer:
Umayyads was a prosperous clan of the Quraysh tribe and Muawiya was its first Caliph. He shifted capital at Damascus and adopted the court ceremonies and administrative institutions of the Byzantine empire. He introduced hereditary succession. These were the innovations of the Umayyads adopted by the Caliphs. They retain power for 90 years and the Abbasids for two centuries.

It was an imperial power and mainly based on statecraft and loyalty of Syrian troops. There were Christian advisers in the administration, Zoroastrian scribes, and bureaucrats. Islam provided legitimacy to the rule of the Umayyads and Abbasids. During the reign of Abd al-Malik and his successors, Arabic was accepted as the language of administration, and the introduction of an Islamic coinage was an important achievement. Dinar was the gold coin while dirham was the silver coin. Aba al-Malik also built the Dome of the Rock.

Question 14.
Discuss Byzantine and Iranian coins and that of Arab-Islamic coins?
Answer:
Byzantine coins were called denarius while the Iranian coins were drachma. Symbols of crosses, Sine alters along with an inscription of Greek and Pchlari (the language of Iran).

Aba-al-Malik removed these symbols and language inscribed thereon but the shape and size were kept unchanged. Initially, Abd- al-Malik inscribed his portrait with name and image. Subsequently, it was made epigraphic. A Kalima was inscribed in Arabic which means–There is no god but Allah and He has no partner (Sharik). This change was made because there developed dissatisfaction subsequently representation of living beings in art and craft.

Question 15.
Discuss the causes and consequences of the Abbasid revolution.
Answer:
It was named as Dawa movement and it brought down the Umayyads and replaced them with another family of Meccan regions, the Abbasids in 750 CE. Abbasids were the descendants of Abbas, the Prophet’s uncle. This revolution broke out in Khurasan (eastern Iran) where a mixed Arab-Iranian population was mobilized. Arab soldiers were from Iraq and resented the dominance of the Syrians. The Umayyad regime had not reduced the taxes and their demand for privileges left unaccepted. Iranian Muslims (Mawalis) were discriminated against by Arabs. Thus, Umayyad’s Caliph Marwan was defeated in a battle at the river Zab and thereafter, Abbasid Caliphate formed.

Question 16.
Outline the fiscal system adopted in die Central Islamic lands.
Answer:
Fiscal System-Owing to the rapid growth of urban centers, cities, towns and the trade, income, and expenditure of the state had also spurt-up. This increased the importance of money in the central Islamic Lands. In order to pay for goods and services, coins of gold, silver, and copper were minted and circulated in bags sealed by money-changers.

Gold was brought from Sudan in Africa, silver from Europe (Zarafshan valley), and precious metals and coins were also brought from Europe. Demand for money inspired dead people to release their accumulated reserves and idle wealth into circulation. Credit facilities were also developed. Letter of Credit (Sakk) and bill of exchange (Suftajer) was used for the transfer of money from one place to another. Commercial papers like promissory notes, cheques, etc. freed merchants from the need to carry cash everywhere. It made their journey safer. Salaries to soldiers or rewards to poets and minstrels were paid in Sakk (cheques). Investment increased and partnership business’s opened. Thus, the fiscal system under Islamic land was approximately in modem line.

Question 17.
Explain the Quran and the difficulties in case of it as source material for the history of early Islam.
Answer:
The Quran is a book in Arabic consisting of 114 chapters (Suras). Chapters are in descending order of length i.e. the shortest chapter is the less. Only first Sura is a short prayer (al-Fatihah. This book is considered as a collection of messages which God gave to Prophet Muhammad between 610 and 632, first in Mecca and then in Medina. It was completed in 650 CE. The verses engraved on the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and oh the coins in the seventh century are the earliest.

Problems for the use of the Quran as source material for the history of early Islam have arisen. The one is to understand it literally as the theologians believe these as the speech of God (Kalam Allah). The rationalists have given a wider interpretation of the Quran. Such dual-position raises controversy to arrive at the conclusion. The second problem is that of events not narrated by m Quran. It only refers to the events therefore, Medieval scholars have to make sense of many verses with the help of hadith. We see, there are many hadith written to help in the reading of the Quran.

Question 18.
Whether the thoughts of Abdul-Latif, a twelfth-century legal and medical scholar of Baghdad about an ideal student as extracted in this chapter are relevant to a student today?
Answer:
We think the suggestions are all relevant to a student today provided that one could construe the meaning and implication of this extract in a positive manner. We can sum up the main points suggested as under-

1. Self-conscience without the proper guidance of teachers ipso- facto is unscientific as it may be mere fiction.
2. Don’t think the limitation of the teacher but take all good that he delivers as your review, introspection, and churning on the same would lead you to the facts.
3. Don’t do cramming but understand the topics so better way as the physical presence of the book is no more required.
4. Histories, biographies, and Geography are the subjects that introduce a man to his surroundings. Analyze and compare the cause and effects of all events and activities.
5. Frame opinion after study on biographies of great men cautiously by taking your nature as innocent as a child.
6. Once the conclusion has arrived, stay undeniable there even if the world criticizes you.

On the basis of the above points, the study becomes perfect and scientific for which no options remain. Here literally suggested submission before Prophet and distrust your nature but its implication leads to the scientific process of the study. We can replace prophet with. the generalization which is made after experiments done impartially. Similarly, distrust of your nature implies cleanliness of head and heart while in a study which is necessary to grasp the sense in its basic form and generalization thereafter would automatically provide with the apparent light in the matter so churned.

Conclusion-Hence, we can state that cramming and study are useless even in modem sense and curriculum and the same has been started and suggested in the aforesaid extract.

Question 19.
Discuss the influence of Greek philosophy, mathematics and medicine added to the curriculum of schools under the central Islamic Lands?
Answer:
Study on these subjects promoted critical inquiry and had a profound influence on Islamic intellectual life. Scholars with a logical bent of mind Eg. Mutazila started using Greek logic and methods of reasoning (Kalam) to defend Islamic beliefs. Philosophers (Malaysia) posed wider questions and provided fresh answers. Books on medicines were confused like al-Qanun fil Tibb (Canon of Medicine) by Ibn Sina. The poetry of that period is called Nazm and prose is called nature. Ode (qasida) is the poetic composition by poets of the Abbasid period.

Abu Nawas composed classical poetry on themes like wine and male love. Sufi’s glorified the intoxication caused by the wine of mystical love. An Arabic vocabulary was developed. The Father of the new Persian poetry was Radaki, a court poet under Samanids. Rubai and Ghazals were composed.

The rubai is a four line-stanza in which the first two lines set the stage, the third is finely poised and the fourth delivers the point. Umarkhayyam of Bukhara was a famous poet who composed rubai. Diwans and Mathnavi (anthologies and epic poetry) were composed during the period of Mahmud of Ghazni. Firdausi composed Shahnama (Book of King) and Kitab-Al-Fihrist describes a large number of works written in prose for the moral education and amusement of readers.

Other books written during this period were Kalilawa Dimna, Stories of Alexander and Sindbad, The Thousand and One Nights, Kitab al-Bukhala, Akhlaq, Mirrors for Princes Tarikh (Ansab al-Ashraf) and Tarikh al-Rusul Wal Muluk, Rihla and Ahsan al-Taqasim, Muruj al Dhahab and Tahqiq mail-Hind.

Question 20.
Describe the Sufis and their new method of devotion.
Answer:
Sufis were religious minded people in medieval Islam. They preached knowledge of God through asceticism (Rahbaniya) and mysticism. These people sought to renounce the world (Zuhd) and rely on God alone (Tawakkul). Mysticism attained new heights by the idea of pantheism and love. Pantheism is the idea of the oneness of God and His creation which implies that the human soul must be united with its maker. Ishq or intense love can only help in the merger of the soul with god. Sufis used musical concerts (Sama) to introduce ecstasy and stimulate emotions of love and passion. Rabia and Bayazid Bistani were some Sufis. Sufism was beyond the boundaries of caste, race, religion, and creed. According to theory, religion is more personal and less institutional.

The Central Islamic Lands Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Give a brief account of the society, its largest organization (Caliphate, Sultanate, etc.), Cultural, Vocational, literary, scientific achievements, and religion as a motive for cause and the effects in the Central Islamic Lands.
Answer:
Society is formed of individuals and individuals are the finished product of families. Again we know that family, the first unit of Society formation, actually determines the instincts and motives that manifest before him in the shape of events either good or bad as calculated by society on its perceived goals in a fixed timeline or the phase of time.

The topography, sense of realization or religion as adopted and adapted to the contemporary society, availability of sources and resources including water, humans, minerals, soil, and their proportionate adjustment (Formation of climate, temperature, precipitation, etc.)-all determine combinedly, the account of human actions in the lap of nature. Such account constitutes the history of a particular time frame classified with certain distinctions and comparisons. We can give a summed-up account of the Central Islamic Lands as under-

A. Society-(a) Topography-We see, the central Islamic lands covered by the Mediterranean sea and Black sea at the west, the Red Sea at the south, the Arabian sea at eastern-west along with the Persian Gulf and Caspian and Aral sea at the north and north-east respectively. There are also existed rivers like Euphrates, Nile, etc.

Impact-Trade and commerce developed at the climax. Terrestrial routes like the silk route and sea routes like the Red Sea route and Persian Gulf route were invented.

Red-Sea route-Aden and Aydhab ports of this sea started receiving Indian and Chinese goods. Eg. spices, textile, porcelain, and gunpowder.

Persian Gulf Route-Goods mentioned above were carried to Siraf and Basra ports of the Persian Gulf.

Silk Route-China reached through the oasis cities of Bukhara and Samarqand. It was the terrestrial way. Camel caravans and carts were used. These two cities were also important for trading with European countries.

Structure of Society-It indicates that leaders and businessmen were the important organs of society. There were sailors, peasants, soldiers, money-changers, common people, and slaves in the society.

Religion-Islam propagated by Prophet Muhammed who was Arab by language and a merchant by profession. Before Muhammad, there was prevalent idolatry in Islamic lands. In Mecca, there was a cube-like structure called Kaba in which idols were placed and worshipped. An idol was called Sanam and the shrine in which it was placed called shrine. Arabs were polytheistic and nothing was clear for the notion of a supreme God.

They began to call it Allah, as Jewish and Christian tribes living in their midst, had faith in Jew and Jesus Christ. Muhammad declared him a rasul of God and suggested Salat for Arabs. This religion was called Islam and its followers were called Muslims. Rituals were very simple as one has to join with Salat, distribute alms to beggars and keep away himself from theft. Umma had to bear witness (Shahadat) to the existence of the religion before God as well as before members of other religious communities.

This new religion garnered the support of the mass in Mecca but the affluent section of society created problems for the propagation of this religion. Muhammad had to leave Mecca and went to Medina. This day was later adopted as the first day of the Hijri era in the Muslim calendar. In order to create a religious bound political institution, Muhammad converted Umma into a wader community to include polytheists and tv Jews of Medina under political institution. He made certain ethics and rituals matching with the demand- of society and the circumstances. Agriculture, trade, Zakat, and ghazwa were the source of survival for the community. Thus, rituals to the effect of abstaining from the theft were removed.

Initially, all were nomadic people divided into Qabilas like Quraysh. After Muhammed, there became his descendants as Umayyads, Abbasids, Mawalis, Kharjis, etc. However, they all were Muslims and followers of Islam. Shias and Sunni sects were also formed during Ali, the fourth Caliph’s regime.

B. Political Structure-Muhammed established Islam religion along with the political organization, initially of his tribe Quraysh and then conversion of Christians, Jewish, etc. into Islam. Raids on Meccan caravans and nearby oases kept alive in order to keep the populace well earned and satisfied.

As Muhammed had died intestate, Umma became powerful and its leader was accepted as Caliph or deputy of Prophet Mohammad. The Amir Almuminin did not even take care of the wife, uncle, cousins, etc. for leadership which created a rift and internal conflicts which we see as the Battle of the Camel (657), Battle at Siffin (northern Mesopotamia), the assassination of Uthman and Ali Abbasid revolution, etc.

Under the Caliphate system, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali reigned as Caliph i.e. deputy to Prophet. After Ali’s assassination, other Caliphs were the Umayyads and Abbasids. The first four Caliphs ruled from 632 to 661 (i.e. 29 years), Umayyads ruled from 662 to 750 C E. (i.e. about 90 years) and Abbasids ruled from 751 to 810 (i.e. 59 years). The Caliphate system declined gradually in 810 CE and Sultanate System came into existence.

The first Turk was Mamluk. He had to tackle Buyids (Iranian title holders of Shahanshah), Fatimids, Tahirids, Samanids, and Tulumids. Thus, Central Islamic Lands witnessed a number of rulers as Caliph coincide the Turk dynasty from 810 to 961 C E when Alptegin, father of Mahmud of Ghazni established Ghaznavid Sultanate. Thereafter, Seljuq Turks i.e. Tughril and Chaghri Beg, two brothers ruled as Sultan when this title was given to him by the Caliph al-Qaim.

Crusades took place during the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries. Christians wanted Palestine but could not achieve success even after the three crusades they conducted. Finally, the Mamluks (Sultan) drove them under a Jihad started first by Salah al-Din (Saladin) his predecessor.

We can state that the Central Islamic land had witnessed a blend of governing systems under the Caliphate and Sultanate.

C. Agriculture-Three kind of landholding i.e.

1. Small
2. big and
3. the large estates.

The state had overall control on agricultural land and a large chunk of coffer was contributed by the land revenue. Revenue for land was named Kharaj which varied from half to a fifth of the produce- Muslims were given concession as only Ushr (One-tenth of the produce) was charged as tax r Kharaj from them. Immigration facilities were given extra heed and care by the Caliphs and other rulers. We see Iqta System was adopted from the tenth century onward’s. Crops like cotton, oranges, bananas, watermelons, spinach, and brinjals were grown and exported to Europe.

D. Culture-Tafsir, Judith, Sharia, Mazhab, etc. were consolidated and society followed the rules under Sharia. Reasoning (Qiyas) was also given importance while writing Sharia for the Muslims. Owing to differences in the interpretation of sources and methods of jurisprudence, four schools of law were formed. These were-Maliki, Hanafi, Safii, and Hanbali schools knew in the name of their propounders of the jurists.

A group of religious-minded people was known as Sufis. They were believers in Rahabaniya and mysticism. They were like sadhus in Hinduism. Sufis sought to renounce the world and rely on God alone. Does this settle society influence by the ideas of pantheism and? love. Rabia of Basra, Bayazid Bistami of Iran and Dhulnan Mistri, etc. were the Saints or Sufis:

Greek philosophy, mathematics, and medicine were the subjects taught in schools that coincide with other Arabic subjects of the central Islamic lands. These new subjects promoted critical inquiry and had a profound influence on, Islamic intellectual life. The logic was used to, defend Islamic beliefs. A number of books were written on medicine, law, and humanities. Prose and poetry saw exquisite growth. Poets of Persian origin revitalized and reinvented Arabic poetry and challenged the cultural hegemony of the Arabs. Pahlavi, the Iranian language t suffered a setback: Its version was prepared and it Was named New Persian. This language was preferred by all Caliphate and other rulers of Sultanate during that phase of the time. Rudaki was considered the father of New Persian poetry and UmarKhayyam brought rubai : (Persian poem) to the climax. A number of books in history, geography, humanities (storied, fables, etc.) were written in this period of history.

E. Economy-

1. Urbanization took place and garrison cities, port cities, and capital cities were established. These were in Kufa, Basra, Baghdad, Damascus, Aleppo, Alexandria, Daylam, Samarkand. Samaria, Antioch, and Tripoli.
2. Goins of gold, silver, and copper were minted. Bags filled with coins were sealed by money changers. Gold was brought from Sudan (Africa) and silver from Zarafsan valley in Central Asia. Precious metals and corns came from Europe.
3. Letters of Credit and bill of exchange etc. methods of payment were adopted.
4. Family businesses set-up everywhere. Businesses were also run through employees like firms. and companies of modem period. When rib was declared unlawful, the people adopted hiya i.e. earning of interest on transactions unfair way.
5. Ample supply of coins and trade promotion developed the trend of investment. People began releasing their accumulated reserves and idle wealth into circulation.

Conclusion-Thus, on the basis of the above parameters, discussed,

we can conclude that nomadic tribes of the Central Islamic Lands gradually formed political institutions mainly on the Aristocracy line and d a blend of religion and politics is witnessed from the sixth to thirteenth centuries. Several Caliphates and Sultanates were formed and declined during the period of seven hundred years. Civil wars, crusades in varied colors and forms were fought one after another. In the fields of language, literature, architecture, and economy we observe, certain progress had been achieved.

Here we are providing Class 11 Geography Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 2 Structure and Physiography. Important Questions for Class 11 Geography are the best resource for students which helps in class 11 board exams.

Important Questions for Class 11 Geography Chapter 2 Structure and Physiography

Structure and Physiography Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Where did the Tethys sea exist?
Answer:
Tethys was present there where the Himalayas and northern plains are present today.

Question 2.
What are the main physical divisions of India?
Answer:

1. Northern mountains,
2. The Great Plains,
3. Peninsular Plateau,
4. Coastal Plains and
5. Islands

Question 3.
What is the length and breadth of the Himalayas?
Answer:
Length is 2,500 km, breadth is 150 km to 400 km.

Question 4.
Name the four largest glaciers of India.
Answer:
Siachin, Hispar, Baii’o and Baltoro.

Question 5.
What do you mean by ‘duns’?
Answer:
These are the flat-floored valleys between Sivalik and Himachal.

Question 6.
What type of sand dunes are present in the ‘Thar desert’?
Answer:
Longitudinal, Barkhans, and Transverse type.

Question 7.
Name two passes of the Western Ghats.
Answer:
Thai Ghat and Bhor Ghat.

Question 8.
Name two rift valleys found in India.
Answer:
Narmada and Tapti.

Question 9.
Which plateau is found in the northeast of the peninsula?
Answer:
Shillong plateau.

Question 10.
What is the height of three peaks of Himalaya, having a height of more than 8,000 m.?
Answer:

1. Mount Everest 8,848 m.
2. Kanchenjunga 8,598 m.
3. Annapurna 8,078 m.

Question 11.
Name the highest peak of the Alps mountain.
Answer:
Mont Blanc.

Question 12.
What is the name of the outer Himalaya?
Answer:
Shivalik.

Question 13.
Name the highest plateau of India?
Answer:
Ladakh.

Question 14.
Name the largest physiographic division of India.
Answer:
Peninsular plateau.

Question 15.
Name the important passes in the Himalayas.
Answer:
Jelepa, Nathula, Chola, Zojila, Patkoi, Bomdila, Changla, Karakoram, etc.

Question 16.
Which rivers drain in the Punjab plains?
Answer:
Satluj and Beas drain in Punjab.

Question 17.
What is ‘Marusthal’?
Answer:
The land which is inhabited by the Gonds, Santhali, Oraons, and Bhils is known as Marshal.

Question 18.
Name two Saline lakes of Rajasthan.
Answer:
Sambhar and Didwana are two saline lakes of Rajasthan.

Question 19.
Name the two major island groups in India.
Answer:
The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.

Question 20.
Where is Barren island located in India?
Answer:
It is located on the Nicobar Islands.

Question 21.
Name the important peaks of Nicobar islands.
Answer:
Saddle peak, Mount Diavolo, Mount Koyob, and Mount Thuiller.

Question 22.
Name the submerged coastal plain.
Answer:
Dwarak is the submerged coastal plain.

Question 23.
Which part of the north-western plateau has a complex relief of ravines and gorges?
Answer:
Chambal, Bhind, and Morena have complex relief of ravines and gorges.

Question 24.
In which period were the Aravallies uplifted?
Answer:
Vindhyan period.

Question 25.
Name the eastern boundary of the Deccan plateau.
Answer:
Rajmahal Hills.

Structure and Physiography Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
“The peninsular plateaus and the Himalayas mountains are quite different from each other in respect of stratigraphy, geological structure, and physiography.” Comment.
Answer:
The northern mountains are young, weak, and flexible and have suffered from folding and deformation. The peninsula contains mostly residual mountains. Here, the river valley is shallow having low gradients. On the other hand, the Himalayas mountains are tectonic and rivers are torrential. The formation and development of the surface of the land like mountains, plateaus, and plains are called physiography.

Question 2.
What is Bhangar?
Answer:
The south of Terai is a belt consisting of old and new alluvial deposits known as Bhangar. These areas stand above the level of floodwater and the flood plains. This land is made up of clay pebbles and gravel. In Gangetic plains, these alluvial lands have been formed by the deposition of sandbars by the river.

Question 3.
What is Doab? Give few examples from India.
Answer:
The plain formed between two rivers is known as Doab. It separates two rivers but maintains its uniform character over the whole area. In Punjab, Doabs maintain the physical characteristics of the Punjab plain.

1. Best Jalandhar Doab
2. Bari Doab
3. Chaz Doab
4. Sind Sagar Doab

Question 4.
What is Karewas?. Where do they found?
Answer:
In the valley of Kashmir, the lake deposits comprise thick deposits of glacial clay and other materials embedded with maintaining, These deposits occur in the valleys within the Himalayan mountain where there was once glacial action and deposition of Morain.

Question 5.
State two important characteristics of the topographic complexity of the Himalayas.
Answer:
The young mountains of the Himalayas are formed by the internal horizontal earth movements. They have characteristic topographic. complexity.

1. The Greater Himalayas, the Lesser Himalayas, and Shivalik are three main parallel ranges.
2. These ranges have striking contrasts in their altitudes with snow-capped peaked, deep valleys, gorges, hanging valleys, ridges, etc.

Question 6.
Give three characteristics of the Himalayas, which indicate their youthful stage.
Answer:
There are many pieces of evidence collected by various geologists and archeologists to prove the youthfulness of the Himalayas. The follow ing evidence is given here :

1. The presence of Karewas.
2. In the sub-Himalayan region, fossils of post-tertiary mammals have been found which points to the upliftment during the Pleistocene times.
3. The archeologists have collected curious stone tools that represent the paleolithic times, an early man in the terraces of Himalayan rivers.

Question 7.
Give the main points of difference in Himalaya mountains with Indian plateau.
Answer:

Himalayan Mountains	Indian Plateau
(i) These are young new fold mountains.	(i) Indian plateau is an ancient crystalline land
(ii) These mountains have been formed by the folding of earth.	(ii) It has been formed as a horst.
(iii) The relief features of the young age of the Himalayas.	(iii) Plateau is old and well dissected.
(iv) There are parallel mountain ranges formed.	(iv) Rift valleys are formed.

Question 8. What is the difference between Eastern Himalaya and Western Himalaya?
Answer:

Eastern Himalaya	Western Himalaya
(i) Eastern Himalayas are extended from Sikkim to Assam between Tista and Brahmaputra river.	(i) Western Himalayas are extended between Indus and Kali.
(ii) Strong monsoon brings heavy rainfall.	(ii) Summers are warm and winter is vigorous cold.
(iii) Tropical wet evergreen forests grow.	(iii) Area is snow-covered.
(iv) Relief features are relatively lesser complex.	(iv) Alpine and temperate vegetation are found.

Question 9. Differentiate the Western Ghats and Vindhya Mountains.
Answer:

Western Ghats	Vindhya Mountains
(i) These are the extension of the south of the Malwa plateau.	(i) They are flank the Deccan lava plateau on the west.
(ii) It is running to the Narmada river.	(ii) They have altitude ranges from 900 to 1100 meters.
(iii) These are composed of sandstones, limestones, and shales.	(iii) They are generally forested with a variety of vegetation.

Question 10.
What are the characteristics of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands?
Answer:
The main characteristics are :

1. The Great Andaman is a collection of three islands, north, middle, and south.
2. These are a group of islands.
3. The south coast is very indented and has the highest hill ranges,
4. There are 19 islands in Nicobar islands.

Question 11.
In which part of India, faulting evidence are found?
Answer:
The faulting has taken place on the Deccan plateau. The trough faulting is found in the valleys of Godavari, Mahanadi, Damodar, Tapi, and Narmada valleys are rift valleys. Faulting evidence is found on the Malabar coast and the Markan coast.

Question 12.
What is horst?
Answer:
A horst is the uplift land between two parallel faults. The central mass of the land keeps standing while the adjoining areas are thrown down. It forms the shape of a block mountain or a horst. For example Vindhyan and Vosges.

Structure and Physiography Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Describe in short the major physical division of India.
Answer:
India can be divided into the following physical divisions :

1. The Great Mountains
2. The Great Northern Plain
3. The Great Peninsular
4. The Great Indian Desert Plateau

1. The Great Mountains – These are formed by the continuous stretch of the mountain from Kashmir to Assam. It acts as a wall. They arc the Karakoram and the Himalayas. The Karakoram mountains lie between the Pamir plateau and the Indus River in the west. Baltoro is the famous glacier of the Karakoram range. They are very high mountains. The second Himalayas mountain chain stretch from the Indus river in the west to the Brahmaputra river in the east. Indus and Brahmaputra divide them into the main Himalayas, the western Himalayas, and the eastern Himalayas. The Garo hills, the Khasi hills, the Jaintia hills, and the Mikir hills form the Eastern Himalayas. They fall in the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Assam, Mizoram, Tripura, and Meghalaya.

2. The Great Northern Plain – The great plains are composed of sediments deposited by rivers. They are quite extensive. The central and eastern parts of the plains have been formed by the tributaries of the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers. Half of the Great plain lies in Uttar Pradesh and half in the state of Bihar.

3. The Great Peninsular Plateau – The peninsular plateau forms the largest physiographic division facing towards the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. It stretches from the Satpura range (north) to Kanyakumari (south) and from the Sahyadri (Western Ghats) to Rajmahal hills in the east. It is triangular in shape having four physiographic divisions: the Western Ghats, the Deccan Plateau, the Eastern Ghats, and Eastern Plateau.

4. The Greatest Indian Desert – It lies to the west of the Aravali ranges in Rajasthan. This is the region of moving sand and low rainfall, known as Marusthali. It was drained by the Saraswati, Drisadvati, and Satluj rivers. But today Llini is the only river. There are numerous salt lakes of which Sambhar is the largest.

5. Coastal Plains: The peninsular plateaus are bordered on the east and the west by the coastal plains. There are two well-known peninsulas, Kathiawar and Kachchh, on the west coast and an extensive plain of Gujarat. The east coast has a number of deltas. The west coast has no delta.

6. Island Groups – Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal have a number of islands. They are called Lakshadweep, Andaman, and Nicobar islands. Andaman and Nicobar islands are the elevated portions of submarine mountains while the Lakshadweep Islands are built of coral deposits.

Question 2.
Write a short note on the saline lakes of Rajasthan.
Answer:
Rajasthan lies in the desert area to the west of the Aravali hills. This region has very low rainfall. The groundwater in this region is impregnated with salt, therefore various saline lakes are found. Out of these, there are two well-known saline lakes on the eastern edge of the Thar Desert. They are known as Sambhar end the Didwana. Both of these are the sources of common salts. The Sambhar is an example of a boson. Bolson is an extensive flat depression surrounded by hills in which the drainage is centripetal. The smaller lakes with flat floors are undrained basins in which water collects after rains and evaporates quickly are called Playas. The Didwana lake is a playa.

There are four theories about the origin of these salt lakes :

1. The salt comes from the underlying beds.
2. The lakes are the relics of the receding sea.
3. The salt is transported from Kachchh by the wind.
4. The salt is obtained from the surrounding rocks.

Question 3.
Describe in short, how the Himalayas were formed?
Answer:
The Himalayas have been formed due to folding by different mountain building movements. The major areas of the Himalayas have been formed by folding while minor has been formed as a result of weathering and other agents of changes. It had been uplifted from the Great Geosyncline known as Tethys sea in the folded form. These uplifted ranges had been denuded by the weathering and the other agents such as rivers and glaciers. These agents of changes carved the physical features i.e. gorges, U-shaped valleys, hanging valleys, and ridges. The Indus gorge is formed as a result of erosion and weathering.

There are many U-shaped and hanging valleys which are the result of the erosional work of glaciers and ice. The complexity of the Himalayas is achieved by the various process of weathering and the cycle of erosion. The fertile valley of Kashmir represents the depositional work of the agents of change. Ganga, Indus, and their tributaries rise from the Himalayas. They are busy carving the minor physical features. The Himalayas peaks are snow-covered. They represent the work done by earth movements.

Question 4.
What is ‘KARE WAS’? Where are they found? Describe in short
Answer:
Kare was are the thick deposits of glacial clay and other materials embedded with moraine. The Kashmir Himalayas are famous for Karewas formations which are useful for the cultivation of Zafran, which is a local variety of saffron. Kashmir or the north-western Himalayas comprise a series of ranges such as the Karakoram, the Ladakh, the Zaskar, and the Pir-Punjab. The north-eastern part of the Kashmir Himalayas is a cold desert that lies between the Greater Himalayas and the Karakoram ranges. Between the Great Himalayas and the Pir- Punjab lies the famous valley of Kashmir and Dal Lake, important glaciers Baltoro and Siachin are also found here. Kare was formed in the valleys within the Himalayan mountain where there was once glacial action and deposition of Morain.

Question 5.
Describe the two island groups of India.
Answer:
There are two major island groups in India. One in the Bay of Bengal and the other in the Arabian Sea. The Bay of Bengal groups of islands consists of 572 islands approximately. These are situated between 6°N to 14°N and 92°E to 94°E. Richie’s archipelago and Labyrinth are the two principal groups of islands.

The entire group of islands is divided into two categories:
Andaman (north) and Nicobar (south). They are separated by a water body called 10° Channel. Some smaller islands are volcanic in origin. A barren island the only active volcano in India is situated in the Nicobar Islands. Some important peaks of this island are saddle peak, Mount Diavolo, Mount Koyob, and Mount Thuiller. The coastal line has beautiful beaches. These islands receive conventional rainfall and have an equatorial type of vegetation.

Lakshadweep islands lie in the Arabian Sea. They are scattered between 8°N to 12°N and 71 °E to 74°E longitude. These are located at a distance of 280 km to 480 km from the Kerala coast. The entire island group is built of coral deposits. They are approximately 36, out of which 11 are inhabited. Minicoy is the largest island. The entire group of islands is broadly divided by 11° Channel, north of which is Amini Island and south is Canannore Island. The Islands of this archipelago have storm beaches having pebbles, shingles, cobbles, and boulders on the eastern seaboard.

Here we are providing Class 11 Geography Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 1 India: Location. Important Questions for Class 11 Geography are the best resource for students which helps in class 11 board exams.

Important Questions for Class 11 Geography Chapter 1 India: Location

India: Location Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What is the location of India?
Answer:
India’s location is in between 8°4′ and 37°6’N latitudes (Mainland) and 68°7’ and 97°25’E longitudes.

Question 2.
Why is there the sun almost overhead all the year-round at Kanyakumari and the southernmost tip of the great Nicobar island?
Answer:
Because of their proximity of the equator.

Question 3.
What is the Standard Meridian of India?
Answer:
82°30′ East.

Question 4.
Name the two parts of the Northern portion of the Indian ocean which are divided by the Indian peninsula?
Answer:

1. Arabian sea,
2. The Bay of Bengal.

Question 5.
How long is India’s land frontiers?
Answer:
15,200 km.

Question 6.
Name the island groups which are a part and parcel of the Indian Union?
Answer:

1. The Lakshadweep Island,
2. The Andaman and Nicobar Island.

Question 7.
Name the countries which have common boundaries with India?
Answer:

1. Afghanistan,
2. Pakistan,
3. Nepal,
4. Bhutan,
5. Myanmar,
6. Bangladesh,
7. China.

Question 8.
Who is the closest neighbour of India in the south?
Answer:
Sri Lanka (separated from India by the Palk strait).

Question 9.
How large is our country in the world?
Answer:
India is the 7th largest country in the world.

Question 10.
What are the main physical divisions of India?
Answer:

1. The great mountains of the North.
2. The great plains of Northern India.
3. The great plateau of peninsular India.

Question 11.
Name the highest mountain peak of peninsular India.
Answer:
Anaimudi in Kerala.

Question 12.
Name the longest river in the south?
Answer:
The Godavari.

Question 13.
Which rivers size beyond the Himalayas?
Answer:

1. The Indus,
2. The Brahmaputra.

Question 14.
What is the total area of India?
Answer:
The total area of India is about 32,87,263 sq. km.

Question 15.
Which line of the latitude passes through the centre of India?
Answer:
Tropic of Cancer (passes through the centre of India).

Question 16.
What is the length of the coastal line of India?
Answer:
6,100 km.

Question 17.
Which ocean route links India with Europe?
Answer:
Suez canal.

Question 18.
What is the speciality of -India?
Answer:
Unity in diversity.

Question 19.
Name the southern of most point of the Indian mainland.
Answer:
Kanyakumari.

Question 20.
Name the northern of most point of India?
Answer:
Indira point.

India: Location Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What are two geographical features which have played a great unifying role in strengthening Indian people?
Answer:
The two features are:

1. The great mountainous wall of Himalayas on the north,
2. The peninsular part of India, the Indian Ocean, the Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal on the south.

These are the two geographical features acted as a physical barrier and kept Indian culture in a unified nature.

Question 2.
What is the position of India in the world in terms of size, area and population?
Answer:
India is the 7th largest country in the world having an area of 32,87,263 PQ. km. It is the second-largest country in population. The population of India is 103,00,00,000 next to China. India has 2% of the total area of the world while the population is 16% of the world.

Question 3.
Why India (subcontinent) show a distinct geography? Give reason in support of your answer.
Answer:
The Indian subcontinent has considered a distinct geographical unit. Because it is separated from the rest of the Asia continent by Hindukush in the north-west and in the north by Himalayan ranges. On the southern side, it is isolated by the Indian ocean from the rest of the world.

It has a distinct type of climate which is not found beyond the Himalayas.

It shows unity in diversity which is quite unique.

Question 4.
What do you mean by MacMohan line? What does it signify?
Answer:
The MacMohan line is a dividing line between India and China realms. Between India and China, the crest of Himalayas stand. It separates China and India. This crest of high Himalayas is known as the MacMohan line. It is to the East of Bhutan.

Question 5.
There is a difference of two hours in local time between the easternmost part and the westernmost part. Give reason.
Answer:
The difference in local time between the easternmost part and the westernmost part is for two hours. Because there is a longitudinal distance of 30° longitudes. This distance makes a difference of 2 hours. Hence, when it is 6 a.m. in Arunachal Pradesh (eastern part) the local time at Saurashtra (western part) is supposed to be behind 2 hours as compared to Arunachal Pradesh. Therefore, it is correct that when the sun has already risen in Arunachal Pradesh, it is still night in Saurashtra.

Question 6.
What is the importance of India in the eastern world? Describe in short.
Answer:
India has great importance in the eastern world. It lies between West Asia and East Asia, The trans-oceanic routes connecting Africa, Europe, West Asia and South-east Asian countries pass through India. The sea plays an important role in India’s relations with the external world. The Indian and Chinese cultures meet in south-east Asia and their local culture reflected in terms like Indo-China.

Question 7.
Which countries share their international boundaries with India?
Answer:
The long international boundary of India is shared in the East by Bangladesh (4,096 km), on the north by China (3,917 km), Afghanistan (80 km) and on the north-west by Pakistan (3,310 km). It also has borders with Nepal (1,752 km), Myanmar (1,458 km) and with Bhutan (587 km) India has a land frontier of about 15,200 km. and coastline of 6,100 km.

Question 8.
Write a short note on the peninsular river system in India.
Answer:
The peninsular river system is divided into two:
(a) Rivers flowing into the Arabian sea.
(b) Rivers flowing in the Bay of Bengal

Rivers flowing into the Arabian sea are Narmada and Tapi.’ They originate from Deccan plateau and flow westwards into the Arabian sea. These rivers form estuaries and not delta.

Rivers flowing into the Bay of Bengal are Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri. These rivers form deltas. Most of these peninsular rivers flow rapidly and they are ideal for generating hydel power.

Question 9.
Distinguish between Latitudes and Longitudes.
Answer:

Latitudes	Longitudes
1. The imaginary lines running east-west are known as parallels of latitudes.	1. The vertical lines running north-south joining two poles are called meridians of longitude.
2. These are circular and make a complete circle.	2. They are halves of the great circle.
3. They run parallel to each other.	3. They all meet at the poles.
4. All are similar in size.	4. All are not similar in size.

Question 10.
What is the difference between local time and standard time?
Answer:
Local time of a place is the time of its meridian. All places on a meridian have same local time. Each place has its own local time. The place in the east is ahead of the west in time.

Standard time is the time of central meridian of an area. All places have a uniform time. It has no relation with the moon or height of the sun. There is no change in time. So it is known as standard time.

Question 11.
What is meant by local time?
Answer:
The local time of a place is the time of its meridian. The old method of determining the time was to adjust the clock at noon when the sun would cross the local meridian and shadows would be at their shortest. Time calculated by the position of the sun at noon at a given place is called local time.

Question 12.
What do you mean by standard time?
Answer:
It is the standard time of central meridian of an area. To maintain the uniformity of time as far as possible, within the territorial limits of a country, the time at central meridian of the country is taken as the standard meridian and its local time is taken as the standard time for the whole country. The standard meridian is selected in such a manner that it is divisible by 15° or by 7°30′. The difference between its standard time and Greenwich mean time may be expressed as multiples of an hour.

India: Location Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
What is a subcontinent? India is a subcontinent. Prove it.
Answer:
India has a well-knit independent geographical unit. A subcontinent is a vast independent geographical unit. India is separated from the main continent. It is a vast country that produces diversity in economic, social and cultural conditions.

It is a land of towering mountains, beautiful valleys, magnificent culture and birthplace of numerous religious faiths. Geographically it stretches from the Himalayas in the north to the Indian Ocean in the south, but in terms of its cultural, economic, political influences, it has an emphatic presence in the south and southeast Asia and at the international level. India is the only land with a vast diverse geographic culture which is woven by the strong bond of nationhood and belongingness. India is described as a subcontinent. Other countries that are included are Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. Many factors which prove that India is a subcontinent are:

1. Natural frontiers of India.
2. India is surrounded by the major realness of Asia on all sides. The% great mountain wall gives it an independent shape.
3. India is the 7th largest country in the world in area.
4. India is a land of rivers but it has cultural unity behind this diversity.
5. Monsoon climate determines the life of people and the economic development of the country. It givei^a a distinct character of the subcontinent to this landmass.

Question 2.
Explain the term unity in diversity.
Answer:
In India, many diversities are found but India exhibits a high degree of unity in diversity. The factors which are responsible for this unique feature of the Indian polity are much large geographical spread of the subcontinent provides fertile grounds for germination and blossoming of regional diversities in the social setup. Differentiation in the physical landscape has contributed to the emergence of different ways and pattern of human interaction with nature. People led to the concentration of diverse elements in different regions.

The factors which are responsible for the unity of social character in the country are:

1. Monsoonal season.
2. The horizontal spread of cultural and socio-economic attributes from different parts of the country.

The strong bond generated by nationhood and belongingness. The development of regional linkages and emergence of a regional home market during the British rule in India.

Question 3.
How the central position of India is beneficial to us? Explain it.
Answer:
Geographically India occupies a central position in the Asia continent.

This position is beneficial to us in many ways:

1. India is located on the Eastern hemisphere, Europe and Eastern part of America are at equal distance from India.
2. The tropic of cancer passes through the centre of India. So that India is a tropical country.
3. India has a long coastline which provides many deep and natural harbours.
4. Indian ocean provides a favourable route for international trade.
5. The natural boundaries are favourably located from a different point of view.
6. Indian ocean is the origin of monsoons.
7. The chain of towering Himalayas acts as a climatic barrier. It protects northern India from polar cold winds and forces the monsoon to give rainfall.

Question 4.
What are the three major physical divisions of India? Describe one of them in detail:
(i) The great mountain of north.
Answer:
The great mountains of the north: This physical part lie between the great mountains of the north and the peninsular plateau. It has been built by the deposition of the sediments brought by the rivers. It is alluvial and extremely level. It extends from east to west, about 2,500 km! in length.

(ii) The great plains.
Answer:
The plains consist of the two river basins – Indus and the Ganga- Brahmaputra basins. The Indus and its tributaries The Jhelum, The Chenab, The Ravi, The Beas and the Sutlej flow into The Arabian sea through Pakistan.

(iii) The great plateau Of peninsular India.
Answer:
The Ganga, Brahmaputra and their tributaries flow into the Bay of Bengal. Indus and Brahmaputra originated beyond the Himalayas.

The entire plain region is very fertile and the major occupation of the people is agriculture. A large number of industries come up in the region. This region has a dense network of transport. This region is densely populated.

Question 5.
Describe the changing pattern of human activities in India.
Answer:
The human activities in India have developed in stages. Because many racial stocks came to India at different periods of history and they influence the human activities in India. They had developed various human activities from food gathering to the modem industries. This oldness and continuity of changing human activities of cultural and civilisation areas:
(a) The Negritos represented the food gatherer of the stone age. They had led their life completely on nature. They are still surviving in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
(b) The Dravidian presented the farmer. They came from the Mediterranean lands. They started agriculture and led a settled life. They tilled their land with ordinary instruments and produced various crops. They loved their motherland.
(c) The Aryans represented the artisans and handcraftsman. They started cottage industries. They were more civilised people and knew the art of iron smelting. They made canals from the rivers. They developed cities on the lands of Ganga and Yamuna. They prepared the multicoloured cloth from the silk-threads.

Here we are providing Class 11 History Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 3 An Empire Across Three Continents. Class 11 History Important Questions with Answers are the best resource for students which helps in class 11 board exams.

Class 11 History Chapter 3 Important Extra Questions An Empire Across Three Continents

An Empire Across Three Continents Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Write the continental expansion of the Roman empire.
Answer:
This empire was extended to territories of Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia i.e. Islamic countries.

Question 2.
What are the sources worth reckoning about Roman and Iranian empires?
Answer:
These are:

1. Textual sources including accounts of contemporary historians,
2. Documentary sources including inscriptions and papyri, and
3. Material remains including the things discovered by archaeologists through excavation and field surveys.

Question 3.
Which sea was called the heart of the Roman empire?
Answer:
It was the Mediterranean sea because the Roman empire was at its north and south and it had a center or middle location.

Question 4.
Mention the area controlled by Iran.
Answer:
It was extended from south to Caspian sea down to eastern Arabia and larger parts of Afghanistan.

Question 5.
Mention the time-line for early Europe and the late empire in the context of the Roman empire.
Answer:
The whole period of the third century is early Europe and the period thereafter is late Europe.

Question 6.
What do you understand by the term Princeps?
Answer:
It was a Latin term meaning leading citizen i.e.’ the first citizen of the empire or the emperor.

Question 7.
What was the nature of the republic during the regime of Augustus? i.e. 27  B.C.E.
Answer:
It was actually, an aristocracy system of Government in which the senate was the most powerful. The senate was a body constituted by wealthy families popularly known as nobility.

Question 8.
What was seen specifically in the Roman empire?
Answer:
It was its diverse culture yet bound together by a common system of government. Briefly, it can be stated that there was unity in diversity in terms of the diverse culture of people.

Question 9.
What was the language of the upper class in the Roman empire?
Answer:
It was the Greek language.

Question 10.
What was the specific or chief organ of government in the Roman empire?
Answer:
It was the army. As the available records of contemporary history state, there was a vast army consisting of six lakhs soldiers in the fourth century. This organ of government had the power to determine the fate of emperors.

Question 11.
What was the system of succession to the throne in the so-called republic of the Roman empire?
Answer:
It was based on family descent either natural or adopted e.g. Tiberius was the adopted son of Augustus.

Question 12.
What do you understand by gender in connection with Roman society?
Answer:
The term ‘gender’ incorporates in its scope; the family structure and other similar institutions of society in connection with the Roman empire.

Question 13.
What was the term “literary” in connection with the Roman empire?
Answer:
It is referred to as casual literacy among communities of the Roman empire due to the sudden befall of calamities like the volcano explosion of 79 C.E. in Pompeii.

Question 14.
What meaning the term culture reflects on the culture of people during the Roman empire existed from the first to third half-century?
Answer:
It is meant by and implied to diverse nature of society learned about seven different languages including Greek and Latin both accepted as administrative languages or it may be stated that these languages patronized by the then rulers.

Question 15.
What do you understand by pluralism in religion?
Answer:
It implies general religions and cults simultaneously, were running that period in parallel.

Question 16.
What was an effective tool for ruling so diverse empires?
Answer:
It was the decentralization of powers among Princep, the Senate, and the Army and coordination of their efforts/activities into one i.e. Principate or so-called republic.

Question 17.
What reason would you imagine in the womb of events that resulted in mutiny?
Answer:
The senate can be attributed to failed that period during which soldier wars had taken place.

Question 18.
What was the manner of recruitment of soldiers in the Roman empire and Iranian empire?
Answer:
The soldiers were given privileges and perks. They were duly recruited as modern and paid. Their service tenure was also fixed (i.e. 25 years service).

However, the manner of recruitment under the Iranian army was that of coercive as military service was made necessary for every citizen who had attained the age of eighteen years and compelled to serve at least at his being of forty-three. It was termed a conscripted army by the historians of that time.

Question 19.
Name the historians of the Roman empire.
Answer:
These were-Cassius Dio, Tacitus, Columella, Pliny the Elder (author of Natural History), and Olympiodrous of Thebes.

Question 20.
How did the term “Draconian” is added to the dictionary?
Answer:
The addition of this word to the dictionary is related to the harsh behavior of the ruler called Draco in the Greek language. It is worthwhile to quote here that he had punished with a death sentence even for petty crimes. Generally, draconian means harsh or inhuman mostly in the treatment of others.

Question 21.
What do you understand by mosaic?
Answer:
It was a kind of drawing on wall-pictures or patterns with glass and stones as material e.g. as in Edessa found by archaeologists.

Question 22.
What is a special characteristic of mosaic at Edessa?
Answer:
It has been known through an inscription found that wife of king Edgar and her family had been depicted in the mosaic of that palace.

Question 23.
For what the Pompeii is famous?
Answer:
The archaeologists have found a wine merchant’s dining room pari-passu to modem pub where mystical animals were drawn on the walls.

Question 24.
What are graffitis?
Answer:
These were the funniest writings on walls in Pompeii.

Question 25.
What do you mean by the term funniest in connection with graffitis?
Answer:
It means a thing that has no productive values other than keeping people in mirth or ecstasy.

Question 26.
Write the names of deities worshipped by people under the Roman empire?
Answer:
These were known as Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, and Mars including several Greek and Eastern deities.

Question 27.
What do you understand by the term monolith?
Answer:
A society or culture absolutely orthodox and of rigid communities/traditions.

Question 28.
Who was addressed Laity in the Roman empire?
Answer:
Those were the ordinary members of a religious community below priests or clergy who had official positions within the community.

Question 29.
What were Colosseums?
Answer:
These were the public places or areas where the trained people (gladiators) fight wild beasts and finally, knock them down. The excellent muscle power developed by them and the skill as well, was observed by the populace gathered there, on special occasions and thus, they entertained.

Question 30.
How did the western Roman empire suffer?
Answer:
As the administration was conducted through provincial units complied with certain changes adopted by the society, kingdoms independent by the German groups from the north i.e. Goths, Vandals, Lombards were established. It resulted in a decline in fragments of the Roman empire. This period was specifically described as kingdoms of the post-Roman period.

Question 31.
What had happened to the eastern part of the Roman empire?
Answer:
Despite the plague affected the Mediterranean in the 540 C.E., this part of the empire witnessed general prosperity and expansion till the sixth century.

Question 32.
What do you understand by Christianisation?
Answer:
It was the process by which Christianity spread among different groups of the population and became the dominant religion.

Question 33.
What is the condition of Egypt during the period of the sixth century under Justinian, the ruler of the Roman empire?
Answer:
It was a densely settled part of the empire in the fifth and sixth centuries than it would be even in the twentieth-century i.e. in the modern period. Income from taxes from those regions was worked out over 2.5 million solidi (gold coin) per year. It was equivalent to 35,000 pounds of gold.

Question 34.
Who was destroyed by the Arabs between the period around 511 to 774 C.E.?
Answer:
These were the Visigoths of Spain, Franks of Gaul, and Lombards in Italy.

Question 35.
What different kind of world did come in the offing when Arabs had conquered the western kingdoms?
Answer:
It was known as the Medieval period of history.

Question 36.
Where was the second capital of the Roman Empire established?
Answer:
It was established by Constantine in 313 C.E. at the site of modern Istambul in Turkey previously called Byzantium but on the name of the emperor, it was called Constantinople.

Question 37.
How did the Roman empire get economic stability?
Answer:
The emperor, Constantine had introduced a new denomination, the solidus (a gold coin weighing 4Vi grams). It had an abundant supply from the regions in North Africa. On this count, we can say that the empire would have got stability.

Question 38.
What was the financial condition of the senate members in the Roman empire?
Answer:
The members of the senate were the wealthiest people. Each of them owned a medium-city-like area, the comforts, and facilities as a medium-sized city.

Question 39.
Who was the emperor of the Roman empire during 284-305 C.E. and what changes did he bring in the realm?
Answer:
He was Diocletian. He fortified the frontiers, reorganized provincial boundaries, and separated military frontiers and those of the civilians. Thus, military commanders (duces) became more powerful. He abandoned territories with little strategic and economic importance.

Question 40.
Why is Constantine remembered so in the Roman empire?
Answer:

1. He introduced solidus (the gold coin) which outlasted the Roman empire itself.
2. Oil presses and glass pictures (screw presses and watermills) were established amply under his rule.
3. Invested more in the promotion of cottage industries in villages.
4. Followed by reinforced changes that were brought by his predecessor Diocletian in administration.

An Empire Across Three Continents Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
The text has referred to three writers whose work is used to say something about how the Romans had treated their workers. Can you identify them? Record the section for yourself and describe any two methods the Romans used to control labor.
Answer:
Yes, those three writers were-Tacitus, Columella, and Pliny the Elder.

Tacitus writes on labor controlling networks. He states the slaves were misbehaved and tortured to the extent, they sometimes committed the murder of their owners. He has written that a City Perfect (as of today’s Mayor or Chief Councillor) was murdered by one of his slaves which ultimately, resulted in riots, so uncontrolled as the slaves besieged the senate-house. However, the convict was executed. It shows the senators did not take notice of so grave a situation. No laws reducing punishment were passed particularly, made for the slaves.

The slaves were sometimes grouped into gangs or smaller teams and sternly supervised. As per Columella, another historian of that period, most groups were made in each group of ten slaves. The Natural History writer, Pliny who was also Elder (councilor) to administration, states that slaves were chained together by their feet so that they could save the expenditure incurred on supervision and a permanent measure to keep them busy with the work so assigned to them. He further states, a seal was put upon the workmen’s apparel and they had to wear a mark or a net with a close mesh on their heads.

Agricultural labor was also in a pathetic state and the same conditions prevailed when we talk of workers in factories and workshops. A law was passed in 398 C.E. allowing branding upon the body of laborers/ workmen so that they would be recognized if and when they run away and try to hide. Private employers began doing contracts in term of debts when they would provide the laborers/workers at the time of joining for a period of 25 years ahead and thus, debt bondage oppressed their instincts to the extent, they tolerated every draconian treatment and had surrounded them in servitude although they were free.

Question 2.
It is told that some specific events and circumstances add new words to the vocabulary. Can you state the event that added the term Draconian? Please, explain.
Answer:
Yes, “Draconian” a specific term got popularity owing to Draco, the Greek lawmaker in the Roman empire. He, during the early sixth century B.C.E., had recommended a law in 398 C.E., which referred to workers being branded so they could be recognized if and when they run away and try to hide.

It was gross inhuman treatment with the laborers i.e. the main active and sensitive part of the project/ work. Hence, the pains inflicted upon laborers by branding so severe and harsh to mankind would have accumulated and said law, we see added to the dictionary since then for all kinds of rules, regulations, decrees, orders, implications, and ordinances equally implied.

Question 3.
What were Frankincense and its origin?
Answer:
It was an aromatic resin used in perfumes. It was extracted by the process of piercing the bark of Boswellia trees. The Arabian peninsula was suitable for the natural growth of those trees in forest areas there.

Question 4.
Describe the living standard of Aristocrat’s (nobles) during the Roman empire.
Answer:
These were those rich people called members to the senate in government like councilors of modem period. They owned a medium city like big area with all affluent and appurtenance facilities and ease. Hippodromes, fora, temples, fountains, and different kinds of baths were essential components to their possession.

Every councilor had an income of 4,000 pounds of gold per annum from their properties not including grain, rice, and other produce which, if sold, would have exchanged for at least 1500 pounds. The second class people came into being when Gallienus imposed a prohibition on the recruitment of senators into the army in order to prevent control of the empire from falling into their hands. Their income was one thousand or fifteen hundred pounds of gold per year. It has been mentioned by Olympiodorus, the historian of that period.

Question 5.
What period, you would say or the contemporary historian had stated as “Late Antiquity”, why would have this phrase used for, explain.
Answer:
It was the period around the fourth to seventh centuries. The term “antiquity” is archaeological and denotes the period around the modern and the past i.e. medieval period. Several natural and economic changes were witnessed by this period about that of three centuries. Constantine and Diocletian were the emperors of that period. It was Diocletian who inserted division of power in army and civilians including senators. He curtailed the territories less productive and minimal importance in view of defense i.e. strategy.

Constantine on his part had reinforced the division of power made by his predecessor viz. Diocletian and is remembered for circulation of gold coin solidus weighing 4.5 grams. This measure brought economic stability. the empire as there was no dearth of supply from North Africa. He established his second capital at Byzantium (Istambul in Turkey at present) and named I Constantinople (i.e. the palace of the emperor Constantine). Cotta industries got patronage of these two rulers and factories mainly h of oil presses and glass factories, was established.

Question 6.
Who was Nero and why is he famous even today?
Answer:
Nero was a Roman citizen known to the Greek language and one of the extremists among the slaves/workers/workmen coerced and tortured badly by their factory owners, land-owners, and senators. He led the motion violently when a slave convicted as the murderer of Lucius Pedanius Secundus was being taken to execute under the order of the senate. He rebuked the population for watching deafly; the injustice, so severe practiced on the slaves. The crowd was ready to attack senators and the jailor got blows of stones and was tortured in their hands. This was the first mass agitation led by Nero.

Question 7.
Who were plebs Sordida? Do you see they resemble modem film stars and sportsmen? How?
Answer:
In context to the Roman empire, plebs Sordida were the unkempt lower class people but addicted to circus and theatre display including slaves. Their activities were confined to observe the moods of their owners mostly senators and keep them at mirth. There were no laws preventing their execution on the displeasure of their owners. Thus, that section of society was of the least value and even today, these activities are called pastimes i.e. merely for recreation at leisure and these people are like soothsayers in Shakespearean plays.

The theatrical quality, however, has preferred by the public to the extent, one may see one or more lessons on text-books recommended by NCERT by virtue of their keen observation of society and its instincts soaked into the ocean of western culture and cunning manners. Travesty of words and dialogues, the electronic media has technically sorted and pseudo trends are being implanted into human minds.

The logic for such are invincible in globalization and trying to create a universal soul that would make humanity universal. We are thus, soon, going to be universal-men once described by our culture as-“Ayam Nijah Paroveti Ganana Laghuchetsam, Udara Caritanamatu Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam.” No doubt, it is a renaissance but just reverses the cycle of the renaissance that had begun since thirteenth century C.E. from Italy.

Question 8.
What had resulted when debt-bondage did the attack on the labor instincts?
Answer:
The workmen/laborers/coolies/workers/servants etc. suffered when draconian tricks were practiced on them severely. It gradually hammered nails in their head and heart of them, it gave birth to rebellion in Judaea against Roman domination e.g. great Jewish revolt of 66 C.E.’The revolutionaries destroyed the money lenders’ bonds to won popular support.

Question 9.
Who was the exception of labor coercion?
Answer:
Despite labor coercion to a severe degree by virtue of draconian laws, the emperor Anastasius of the late fifth century offered high wages in course of the frontier city of Dara constructed by him. It is pertinent to mention that-that the entire city was built by workers in less than three weeks’ time. We also came to know through Papyri that widespread wage-labor had become inputs of the Mediterranean by the sixth century especially, in the east.

Question 10.
Describe some less-advanced states under the Roman empire.
Answer:
Numidia (modem Algeria) witnessed transhumance during the Roman empire. There were pastoral and semi-nomadic communities. Transhumance was the regular animal movement of the herdsmen between the higher mountain regions and low lying ground in search of pasture for sheep and other flocks. They had oven-shaped huts (Papalia) with them, all portable. In Spain, the villages called Costella was inhabited by the Celtic speaking peasantry. However, with the expansion of Roman estates in North Africa, the pastures of these communities were drastically reduced and their movements more tightly regulated.

Question 11.
Discuss the sophistication trends in the Roman economy.
Answer:
Economic Life under the Roman empire was most advanced. Diversified applications of water power around the Mediterranean, development of water-powered milling technology, the use of hydraulic mining techniques in the Spanish gold and silver mines and gigantic industrial scale, well organized commercial and banking networks, and widespread use of gold coins indicate prima facie the sophisticated economy under the Roman empire.

Question 12.
Who were equities and what was their role in the Roman empire?
Answer:
The term equities denote the horse-rider, hence, it refers to knights who were the second most powerful and wealthy group after senators viz. this group represents the army, the third organ of the government. They were families whose property qualified them to serve in the cavalry. Mostly, people of this group were landowners and some others were ship-owners, traders, and bankers, viz. people were involved in business activities.

Question 13.
Discuss the traditional religious culture of Greek and Roman under the Roman empire.
Answer:
Both Greek and Roman were poly-theist. There were numerous cults in which gods like Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, and Mars and several Greek and eastern deities worshipped in thousands of temples, shrines, and sanctuaries throughout the empire. The above were mainly Roman/Italian gods. Polytheists had no common name or label to describe themselves. Judaism was diverse within the Jewish communities of late antiquity. Bishops were orthodox type and used to criticize the common Christians for beliefs and practices they did thereupon. They made a very rigid1 set of beliefs and practices.

Question 14.
Describe the condition of the middle class under the Roman empire.
Answer:
The middle class was consisting of government servants in the bureaucracy and soldiers as also prosperous merchants and farmers in the eastern provinces. The middle class has been described as clients to the great senatorial houses.

Question 15.
Who were humiliates?
Answer:
Humilores was the term incorporating jointly all lower classes of the Roman society. They conferred a rural labor force of which many were permanently employed on the large, estates, workers in industrial and mining departments, migrant workers for the grain and olive harvests, and building industry i.e. construction of houses, public-houses including palaces. Self-employed artisans were better fed than wage laborers (in big cities) including slaves.

Question 16.
Discuss the Roman bureaucracy during early fifth-century C.E.
Answer:
It was an affluent group because it drew the bulk of its salary in gold and invested much of this in buying up assets like land. There was corruption in the judicial and administration of military supplies. Bureaucrats were extorting animals and provincial governors were corrupt. As historians and other members of the intelligentsia condemned these practices, the government passed time to time several legislations to curb the corrupt practices. Olympiodoriis, the historian of that period has mentioned that a number of laws were passed in order to abolish corrupt practices. The government being autocratic responded to protest with violence in the cities of the East.

The law passed by the fourth century C.E. imposed restrictions on the arbitrary tendencies of the emperor as it provided protection to civil rights. For an instance, Ambrose, the powerful Bishop protested sternly against the repressive measures they practiced on the civilian population.

Question 17.
How independent were women in the Roman world? Compare the situation of the Roman family with the family in India today.
Answer:
Women were independent the most in the Roman empire with the right to get a share in their father’s property and became independent property owners on her father’s death. The Dowry system was also prevalent in that society. Thus, women were two ways benefited. We can state that married couples were not one financial entity but two, and the wife enjoyed complete legal independence. She was free to get a divorce from her husband only through the notice of intent to dissolve the marriage. The marriageable age for males was their late twenties or early thirties while it was late teens or early twenties for the females. It means boys were eligible to marriage after twenty-five while it was eighteen or nineteen for the girls.

Thus, a large gap between husband and wife and would have encouraged a certain inequality. Mostly arranged marriages were solemnized but women were often subjected to domination by their husbands. Augustine, the bishop of the North African city of Hippo writes that his mother was regularly beaten by his father and that most other wives in that small town had similar bruises to show. Father had substantial legal control over their children viz. they were free to kill their unwanted children e.g. such children would be left to die by leaving them out in the cold.

Indian Succession (Reforms) Act, 2005 has also provided women in India, right to get a share in their fathers’ properties equal to their siblings. Divorce cases are also piling up at the courts of this country. Women have been given reservations on 33% of the assembly and parliament seats including at the level of local self-government viz. village, block, and district levels (Panchayati Raj).

An Empire Across Three Continents Important Extra Questions Long Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Outline the Roman administration, the structure of society, Gender, literacy, culture, and economic expansion under the Roman empire.
Answer:
We would like to answer this question under the following sub-heads:
(a) Administration-It was an aristocracy form of government. The administration was done through provinces under a single emperor. Organs of the Roman government were the emperor, the senate (wealthy families mostly landowners), and the army (equities consisting of ship owners, bankers, traders, and landowners). These were knights and categorized under middle class) viz. three organs. Tacitus, the contemporary writer says that the middle class was a client to the great senatorial houses. The fourth organ was that of Humiliores (i.e. lower class). It was consisting of plebs Sordida addicted to the circus and theatrical displays and finally, the slaves.

Early administration was called Principate alias aristocracy in which emperor was Princep (leading citizen) not the absolute ruler but actually, such was only a facade as it was the emperor who had exercised the real power of administration. Senate was powerful till it was a republic. Senate was consisting of the wealthiest families of Roman and later, Italian descent, mainly landowners. Senators only had written the Roman histories. There were also emperors who behaved with suspicion or brutality and violence against the senatorial class but even after efforts made skilfully, this class could not bring back the days of the republic i.e.; the period when it had absolute powers to rule. Urban centers were developed and the large chunk coffer constituted income from taxation on provinces, urban centers, and the villages.

(b) Gender-It was witnessed that women were given independent legal rights to the effect that they were made heir to the property of their natal family, entitled to own and manage the property at their will, and independent property owner on their father’s death. Those were not transferred to their husbands’ authority after marriage. They were made free to divorce their husbands or their husbands would free to divorce them and it needed no more than a notice of intent to dissolve the marriage. Despite so many legal rights given, male domination was all apparent as Saint Augustine, the bishop had described the coercive treatment of his father to his mother. Perhaps that was because of the large gap between the marriageable age of boys and girls i.e. 30 years and 19 years respectively.

(c) Literacy-Advertisements and graffiti (wall writing) in Pompeii reveals that there was casual literacy. The papyri survived in hundreds, disclose documents such as contracts were written by professional scribes. The general public was illiterate but soldiers, army officers, and estate managers were well educated to tackle their affairs. Greek, Latin, Celtic, Aramaic, and Coptic were the languages. The former two were widely used and patronized by the emperor. The latter was mostly in oral form as no script till then developed.

(d) Culture-Diversity of religious cults and local deities is witnessed all through the Roman empire. There were languages like Greek, Latin, Aramaic, Coptic, and Celtic, etc. Greek and Latin, there was diversity in styles of dress and costume, the food people ate, their forms of social organization (tribal/non-tribal) and their patterns of the settlement were also of diverse nature. Aramaic was the dormant language group of the Near East (west of the river Euphrates).

(e) Economic expansion-Economic infrastructure of the Roman empire was consisting of harbors, mines, quarries, brickyard, and olive oil factories. Major trading items were wheat, wine, and olive oil. Wine and olive oil were transported in containers called amphorae. Spanish olive oil of this period was mainly carried in a container called Dressel-20. Prices of commodities were determined on perfect competition as for instance, Spanish producers had captured the markets for olive oil from their Italian counterparts. North Africa subsequently became a major producer of olive oil. During the later fifth and sixth centuries, the Aegean, southern Asia Minor (Turkey), Syria, and Palestine became major exporters of wine and olive oil.

Producer regions of the Roman empire were Campania (Italy), Sicily, Fayum (Egypt), Galilee, Byzantium (Tunisia), southern Gaul (Gallia Narbonensis), and Baetica (Southern Spain). The writers like Strabo and Pliny had stated this fact.

Less advanced territories were the villages like Numidia (Algeria) and Castella. Transhumance was in vogue, as these communities were that of herdsman.

There were well-organized commercial and banking networks, water-powered milling-technology, the use of hydraulic mining techniques, and the industrial sector developed in the first and second centuries. The Papyri survived from later centuries (i.e. 4th to 7th century) reveals an affluent society where money was in extensive use and rural estates generated vast incomes in gold. Only Egypt contributed taxes of over 2.5 million solidi (gold coin) roughly equal to 35,000 lbs. of gold.

(f) Social Hierarchies-Hierarchy of society can be mentioned as

1. senators (Patres),
2. leading members of the equestrian class,
3. section of people attached to the great houses,
4. plebs Sordida (lower class) and
5. slaves.

Italian families were two-third of the total number of senators. The first two groups above (i.e. senators and equities) were merged into one in the early part of the fourth century under emperor Constantine I. Half of all families were of African or eastern origin. The middle class was that of government servants, the army as also ship-owners, traders, and 1 banker. The lower class was collectively known as humiliates. This class comprised of the rural labor force, industry and mine workers, seasonal workers in the agriculture and construction industry, self employed artisans, and slaves. Silver coins were exhausted in the fourth century and gold coins circulated. Constantine founded this new monetary system on gold. There was enormous income from the industrial and mining sectors also as Constantine preferred the promotion of cottage industries.

Conclusion-Thus, we see how an empire across three continents had survived for more than six hundred years. It was a common type of administration wherein diverse cultures, religions, languages, etc. made their imprints, on the pages of history. Coercion and torture of the labor class were, however, pathetic and it finally, gave birth to the revolutionaries like Nero who shattered the system of slavery in spite of it was favored blindly by the senate. During the early seventh century, we see a reduction in this trend after the Jewish war.

Here we are providing Class 11 Geography Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 16 Biodiversity and Conversation. Important Questions for Class 11 Geography are the best resource for students which helps in class 11 board exams.

Important Questions for Class 11 Geography Chapter 16 Biodiversity and Conversation

Biodiversity and Conversation Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Name some biogeographic zones.
Answer:
The lakes, deserts, coasts, estuaries, etc. are some biogeographic zones.

Question 2.
What does the term ‘primitive’ refer to?
Answer:
The term ‘primitive’ refers to early humans who were hunters and gatherers.

Question 3.
During which geological period the mammals go extinct from the earth?
Answer:
The mammals got extinct from the earth during the Pleistocene age about 2 million years ago.

Question 4.
What is the goal of conservation strategy?
Answer:
The goal of conservation strategy is to ensure that evolution continues allowing natural forces to maintain and evolve species.

Question 5.
Name some national parks of the country.
Answer:
Some important national parks of the country are Kaziranga National Park, Sundarbans, Hazaribagh National Park, and Corbett National Park.

Question 6.
Name the two sources providing food to man.
Answer:
Plants and animals.

Question 7.
What do you understand by species diversity?
Answer:
The variation in the physical features of the species.

Question 8.
What are the different types of biodiversity?
Answer:
There are three types of biodiversity: Genetic, Ecosystem, and Species diversity.

Question 9.
What were the main causes of the extinction of mammals in the Pleistocene period?
Answer:
The main causes were:

1. Over killing of animals by humans.
2. Deterioration in climate.

Question 10.
How much percentage of the known plants and animals of the world are at risk of extinction?
Answer:
About 8% of wild plants and 22% of animals are at the risk of extinction.

Question 11.
What are the major determinants of nature and the extent of a biome?
Answer:
The rainfall, temperature range, nature, soil, barriers, latitude, and altitude are the major determinants of the nature and extent of a biome.

Question 12.
Where would you find the greatest variety of hoofed herbivore species?
Answer:
The greatest variety of hoofed herbivorous species is found in tropical savanna.

Question 13.
Give some examples of hoofed herbivore species.
Answer:
They include zebra, giraffe, elephant, kangaroos, and several kinds of antelopes.

Question 14.
Which areas in the world consist of deciduous forests?
Answer:
The deciduous forests are found in the temperate regions of north-central Europe, eastern Asia, and the eastern United States

Question 15.
Name the principal grasslands of the world.
Answer:
The principal grasslands of-the world include Prairies to Canada and the USA, the Pampas of South America, the Steppes of Europe and Asia, and Veldts of Africa.

Question 16.
What constitutes the dominant vegetation of Taiga?
Answer:
Pine, fir, cedar, hemlock, and spruce constitute the dominant vegetation of Taiga.

Question 17.
Identify the important determinants of marine ecosystems.
Answer:
The important determinants of marine ecosystems are depth of water, distance from the snow, and drainage of glaciers and rivers.

Question 18.
Mention three vertical zones of the ocean on the basis of the availability of light for photosynthesis.
Answer:
The three zones of oceans on the basis of the availability of light for photosynthesis are photic, aphotic, and abyssal zones.

Question 19.
Define agro-ecology.
Answer:
The study of the relationship between agricultural scope and environment is called agro-ecology.

Question 20.
What is ecology?
Answer:
Ecology is the science that studies the interaction of organisms with their environment.

Question 21.
Name the positive biotic interactions.
Answer:
Mutualism and communalism are two positive biotic interactions.

Question 22.
Give two examples of fungi,
Answer:
Yeasts and mushrooms are two examples of fungi.

Question 23.
How many species of living organisms exist today?
Answer:
Over5 million species of living organisms exist in the world today.

Question 24.
Name some important abiotic factors of the environment.
Answer:
Temperature, water, light, humidity, wind, topography, and mineral elements are some of the important factors of the environment.

Question 25.
Give two examples of herbivores and carnivores each.
Answer:
Cattle and deer are herbivores, whereas tigers and lions are carnivores.

Biodiversity and Conversation Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What is meant by “Homosapien”?
Answer:
‘Homo’ means ‘man’ and ‘sapient’ means ‘wise’. Homosapien is one of the species of the animal kingdom to which human beings belong. Because of their unique characteristic of wisdom’, human beings are separated from other animal species.

Question 2.
Define ‘ecosystem’ with examples.
Answer:
The biotic community, along with the physical environment forms an interacting system called the ecosystem. An ecosystem can be natural or artificial, temporary or permanent. A large grassland or a forest, a small 1 tract in a forest or a single log, an edge of a pond, a village, an aquarium, or a manned spaceship can all be regarded as an ecosystem.

Question 3.
Describe various structural components of an ecosystem.
Answer:
Various structural components of an ecosystem are classified into two main groups:

1. biotic or living, and
2. abiotic or non-living.

The biotic component of an ecosystem comprises the kinds, numbers, and distribution of living organisms. The abiotic component consists of the kinds, quantity, and distribution of living organisms. The abiotic component consists of the kinds, quantity, and distribution of physical and chemical factors such as light, temperature, water, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and minerals.

Question 4.
How does the background of the habitat determine the distribution of animals?
Answer:
The background of the habitat determines the distribution of animals by enabling them to camouflage against the color, general texture, and pattern. Desert animals like the lion and the camel are sand-colored. Most of the jellyfish, sea cucumbers are lassy. The chameleon changes its color according to its background.

Question 5.
How are plants important to human beings?
Answer:
Plants produce substantial volumes of food for human beings. Besides producing varieties of food crops for man, plants also provide food to their domesticated animals. They also supply timber to serve various requirements of human beings.

Question 6.
What are different types of biodiversity?
Answer:
Biodiversity exists at three levels, viz.,

1. Species diversity, which is reflected by morphological, physiological, and genetic features,
2. Genetic diversity, which comprises genetic or other variations within a species, and
3. Ecosystem diversity, which is reflected in diverse bio-geographic zones such as lakes, deserts, coasts, estuaries,
   etc.

Question 7.
What is meant by eutrophication?
Answer:
Eutrophication is a process that leads to the destruction of the biotic life of water bodies due to the flow of rich effluents into the nutrient water bodies. This destroys or kills the animal and plant life by the deprivation of oxygen.

Question 8.
Give examples of few sanctuaries of the country.
Answer:
Some important sanctuaries of the countries are:

• Annalia Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu)
• Jaldapara Sanctuary (West Bengal)
• Keoladeo Ghana Bird Sanctuary (Rajasthan)
• Sultanpur Lake Bird Sanctuary (Haryana)
• Nagarjun Sagar Sanctuary (Andhra Pradesh)
• Chilka Lake Bird Sanctuary (Orissa).

Question 9.
What kind of people the early humans were from an ecological point of view?
Answer:
The early humans were hunters and gatherers. They may be called primitive. But they were not backward from the ecological point of view. Because their lifestyle was a successful adaptation to the call of nature given the knowledge and technology of life.

Question 10.
When and why did the mammals go extinct from the earth?
Answer:
The prehistoric overkill by early humans in association with deterioration in climate has been recognized as the principal causes for the mammal extinction during the geological period of the Pleistocene, some 2 million years ago.

Question 11.
What purpose was behind the Wild Life (Protection) Act?
Answer:
The Wild Life Act was passed by the Government of India in 1972. The purpose was to protect, preserve and propagate varied natural bounty. Therefore, several national parks and sanctuaries were established to serve this purpose. There are 66 national parks and 368 sanctuaries in India today.

Question 12.
What is the conservation of biodiversity?
Answer:
Conservation means ‘preservation’ of bio-diversity. The goal of conservation strategy is to ensure that evolution continues allowing natural forces to maintain and evolve species. It will maintain gene pools and retain genetic traits that may prove valuable in the future. Conservation also includes future efforts to protect species and to prevent rare ones from extinction.

Question 13.
What is meant by ‘Green Revolution’?
Answer:
Green Revolution is related to agricultural development in India. It came in the 1970s when due to the planned efforts of the government of India, new varieties of seeds, fertilizers, insecticides, and pesticides were introduced to the farmers. This resulted in surplus agricultural production, particularly of foodgrains like wheat and rice.

Question 14.
What are the different types of biodiversity?
Answer:
The green revolution is the outcome of a new variety of seeds and fertilizers. It is also the source of air, water, and land pollution.

Question 15.
Describe the flora and fauna of deciduous forests.
Answer:
The flora (vegetation) of deciduous forests comprises broad-leaved, hardwood trees such as oak, elm, birch, maple, and hickory.

The fauna includes frogs, salamanders, turtles, snakes, lizards, squirrels, rabbits, deer, bears, raccoons, foxes, and songbirds.

Biodiversity and Conversation Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Discuss the human developments that led to a negative impact on the biotic resources of the earth in the modern period.
Answer:
The modem period is the age of industry and urbanization. The population is growing enabled with more lands being cleared of their forests, more soils being filled to grow crops, and more areas being used to erect homes, construct roads, build parking lots, and all the activities that channel resources toward urban locations. The loss of soil, movement of nutrients, and contamination of the environment with tonic materials are syrup to make of the excessive use of energy and unchecked outputs. Virtually every urban and industrial activity has a negative impact on water quality. Industrial and urban sewerage contain hazardous substances and cause eutrophication, diminishing the quality of the freshwater system. Human manipulation of nature has resulted in fragmented and incomplete systems. All these developments have a negative impact on the biotic resources of the earth.

Question 2.
Distinguish between exploitation and conservation of forest.
Answer:
Both the acts are related to human usage of forests as a resource and are contradictory to each other. Exploitation means the usage of forests by human beings in an unfair and selfish manner for one’s own advantage or profit. On the contrary, conservation means the protection of forests. Here also man exploits the forest resources, but with a cautious
effort, i.e. in such a manner that the evolution of species continues, preventing rare ones from extinction.

There are two levels of biodiversity. Genetic diversity comprises the genetic and related variations within the plant or animal species. It is concerned with their origin and evolution. On the other hand, species diversity is reflected by morphological and physiological features of the plant and animal species. It is related to the form and structure.

Question 3.
Distinguish between a National Park and a Sanctuary.
Answer:
National Parks: A national park is an area that is strictly reserved for the betterment of the wildlife and where activities like presenting, grazing, or cultivation are not permitted. In these parks, ‘ even the private ownership rights are not allowed. There are 66 national parks in India. Some important national parks are Kaziranga National Park (Assam), Sunderbans (West Bengal), Hazaribagh National Park (Jharkhand), Corbett National Park (Uttaranchal).

Sanctuary: Some important sanctuaries of the countries are:

• Annalia Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu)
• Jaldapara Sanctuary (West Bengal)
• Keoladeo Ghana Bird Sanctuary (Rajasthan)
• Sultanpur Lake Bird Sanctuary (Haryana)
• Nagarjun Sagar Sanctuary (Andhra Pradesh)
• Chilka Lake Bird Sanctuary (Orissa).

Question 4.
Write a short note on the man-made ecosystems.
Answer:
Humans have changed the environment to a far greater .p extent than any other species. In some instances, the modification is so profound that we call them man-made or artificial ecosystems. These are of variable stability and duration. Villages and cities, orchards and plantations, gardens and parks with their plants and animals are familiar; examples of the man-made terrestrial ecosystem. Large dams and reservoirs, lakes, canals, small fishery, tanks, and aquarium are examples of the man-made aquatic ecosystem.

The most important man-made modifications in the biotic community came with the use of fire, cultivation of plants, and domestication of animals.

All man-made ecosystems including agroecosystems are simpler and highly efficient. They lack the diversity of natural ecosystems. The consequence of diversity is stability. A simple system, on the other hand, is more vulnerable to sudden changes. A single crop agrosystem, for example, may be totally destroyed by drought, floods, diseases, pests, etc. A diversified system, on the other hand, has scope for many adjustments and substitutions.

Question 5.
What do you know about the boundaries of the ecosystem?
Answer:
An ecosystem is an area in which the inputs and outputs can be studied across its boundaries. It is only for convenience that it is considered as a separate entity. Otherwise, ecosystems are not strictly isolated. Their boundaries are indistinct and overlapping. Some movement always occurs in their materials. This movement may be from an adjacent or distinct ecosystem. For instance, a pond may be separated from an adjoining grassland, but some birds may break the barrier and feed on the fish and crabs of the pond. The movement of energy and material can be achieved by biological climate or geological processes.

Here we are providing Class 11 Geography Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 15 Life on the Earth. Important Questions for Class 11 Geography are the best resource for students which helps in class 11 board exams.

Important Questions for Class 11 Geography Chapter 15 Life on the Earth

Life on the Earth Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Name three natural realms of the earth.
Answer:
The three natural realms of the earth are the atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere.

Question 2.
What is ecology?
Answer:
Ecology is the science that studies the interaction of organisms with their environment.

Question 3.
Who is known as the father of Ayurveda?
Answer:
Charak is known as the father of Ayurveda.

Question 4.
What is ‘Charak Samhita’?
Answer:
It is the book of Indian medicine written by Charak, the first century A.D. scholar, who has listed over 200 kinds of animals and, about 340 kinds of plants in this book,

Question 5.
How many species of living organisms exist today?
Answer:
Over 5 million species of living organisms exist in the world today.

Question 6.
What is the science of classification of organisms called?
Answer:
The science of the classification of organisms is called taxonomy.

Question 7.
Define ecosystem.
Answer:
The biotic community along with the physical environment forms an interacting system is called the ecosystem.

Question 8.
Name the positive biotic interactions.
Answer:
Mutualism and communalism are two positive biotic • interactions.

Question 9.
Name some abiotic factors of the environment.
Answer:
Temperature, water, light, humidity, wind, topography and mineral elements,

Question 10.
Give two examples of fungi.
Answer:
Yeast and mushrooms are two examples of fungi.

Question 11.
Give two examples of herbivores and carnivores each.
Answer:
Cattle and deer are herbivores, whereas tigers and lions are carnivores.

Question 12.
What are the major determinants of nature and the extent of a biome?
Answer:
Rainfall, temperature range, nature, soil, barriers, latitude, and altitude are the major determinants of the nature and extent of a biome.

Question 13.
Where would you find the greatest variety of hoofed herbivore species?
Answer:
The greatest variety of hoofed herbivorous species is found in tropical savanna.

Question 14.
Give some examples of hoofed herbivore species.
Answer:
They include zebra, giraffe, elephant, kangaroos, and several kinds of antelopes.

Question 15.
Which areas in the world consist of deciduous forests?
Answer:
The deciduous forests are found in the temperate region of north-central Europe, eastern Asia, and the eastern United States.

Question 16.
Name the principal grasslands of the world.
Answer:
The principal grasslands of the world include prairies of Canada and the USA, the pampas of South America, the steppes of Europe and Asia, and veldts of Africa.

Question 17.
What constitutes the dominant vegetation of Taiga?
Answer:
Pine, fir, cedar, hemlock, and spruce constitute the dominant vegetation of Taiga.

Question 18.
What kind of topography characterizes Tundra?
Answer:
Tundra is a region characterized by snow, ice, and frozen soil for the most part of the year.

Question 19.
Identify the important determinants 6f marine ecosystems.
Answer:
The important determinants of marine ecosystems are depth of water, distance from the snow, and drainage of glaciers and rivers.

Question 20.
Mention three vertical zones of the ocean on the basis of the availability of light for photosynthesis.
Answer:
The three zones of oceans on the basis of availability of light for photosynthesis are: photic, aphotic, and abyssal.

Question 21.
Name the water bodies which form the freshwater environment.
Answer:
The freshwater environment is formed by stagnant water bodies like lakes and ponds, and flowing water bodies like rivers and streams.

Question 22.
Name the major grasslands of the world.
Answer:
Prairies, pampas, steppes, veldts, and downs.

Question 23.
What is an estuary?
Answer:
The estuary is a zone of mixing of fresh and salty water.

Question 24.
What are lianas?
Answer:
The jungle edge is a tangle of sun-loving woody climbers called lianas.

Question 25.
What are xerophytes?
Answer:
Plants that are able to survive in dry regions are called xerophytes.

Life on the Earth Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What is a bio in?
Answer:
Natural ecological groups of plants and animals extend over large areas. Each of these major terrestrial ecosystems or distinctive terrestrial areas with their group of plants and associated animals are recognized as biomes. A biome is, therefore, the largest terrestrial community of plants and associated animals in interaction with the environment.

Question 2.
What kind of animals live in tropical rain forests?
Answer:
The animals living in tropical rain forests include monkeys, snakes, ant-eaters, tropical birds, bats, large carnivorous animals, and a variety of fish in the rivers. Of all the species of insects known nearly 70 to S0% occur in the tropical rain forests.

Question 3.
What kind of flora and fauna characterize the deserts?
Answer:
Deserts are characterized by scanty flora and fauna. Desert plants include different kinds of acacias, cacti, euphorbias, and other succulents. Ants, locusts, wasps, scorpions, spiders, lizards, rattlesnakes, a large number of insect-eating birds such as swifts and swallows, seed-eating quails, doves, desert rats, rabbits, foxes, jackals, and various cats are the common desert animals.

Question 4.
What kind of plant and animal life is supported by tropical savanna?
Answer:
Savannas are characterized by coarse grass and scattered trees on the margins of the tropics where rainfall is seasonal. Wet seasons alternate with dry seasons. Plants and animals are drought-tolerant and do not show much diversity. This biome supports the greatest variety of hoofed herbivore species including the zebra, giraffe, elephant, and several kinds of antelopes. Kangaroos are found in the savannas of Australia.

Question 5.
What are the important features of the Mediterranean scrub forest as a biome?
Answer:
This biome is also known as Chapparal. This is marked by very limited winter rain followed by drought in the rest of the year. The temperature is moderate under the influence of the cool, moist air of the oceans. The biome is characterized by broad-leaved evergreen vegetation. It is made up of fire-resistant resinous plants and drought-adapted animals.

Question 6.
Write a note on deciduous forests.
Answer:
The deciduous forests are found in the temperate regions of north-central Europe, eastern Asia, and the eastern United States. The annual precipitation ranges between 75-150 cm. With the onset of autumn, most of the trees and shrubs become leafless. The vegetation comprises broad-leaved, hardwood trees such as oak, elm, beech, maple, and hickory. The fauna includes frogs, salamanders, turtles, snakes, lizards, squirrels, rabbits, deer, bears, raccoons, foxes, and songbirds.

Question 7.
Describe various vertical zones of the ocean.
Answer:
The vertical zones of the ocean can be determined by the availability of light for photosynthesis. The lighted upper 200 meters form the photic or euphotic zone. The next zone, up to the depth of 2000 meters, gets less light which is insufficient for photosynthesis. This layer is called an aphotic zone. Below 2000 meters is the area of perpetual darkness, called the abyssal zone.

Question 8.
Distinguish between food chain and food web.
Answer:
The food relation in its simplest form representing a producer, a primary consumer (herbivore), a secondary consumer (carnivore), and a decomposer is called a food chain. The next circle of such a food chain is called the food web.

Question 9.
Describe various structural components of an ecosystem.
Answer:
Various structural components of an ecosystem are classified into two main groups:

1. biotic or living, and
2. abiotic or non-living.

The biotic component of an ecosystem comprises the kinds, numbers, and distribution of living organisms. The abiotic component consists of the kinds, quantity, and distribution of physical and chemical factors such as light, temperature, water, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and minerals.

Question 10.
Define ‘ecosystem’ with examples.
Answer:
The biotic community, along with the physical environment, forms an interacting system called the ecosystem. An ecosystem can be natural or artificial, temporary or permanent. A large grassland or a forest, a small tract in a forest or a single log, an edge of the pond, a village, an aquarium, or a manned spaceship can all be regarded as ecosystems.

Question 11.
Distinguish between biotic and abiotic factors.
Answer:
They are two components of an ecosystem. The biotic component comprises the kinds, numbers, and distribution of living organisms. The abiotic component, on the other hand, consists of the kinds, quantity, and distribution of physical and chemical factors such as light, temperature, water, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and minerals.

Question 12.
Explain with examples the role of members of the fungi kingdom of organisms.
Answer:
The fungi kingdom includes diverse kinds of multicellular heterotrophic organisms. There are over 100,000 species of fungi. Some are unicellular like yeast, others are complex like mushrooms. The fungi are the major decomposers and their activity is essential for the recycling of inorganic resources in the biosphere.

Question 13.
What do you understand by biogeochemical cycles?
Answer:
The balance of the chemical elements in the atmosphere and hydrosphere is maintained by a cyclic passage through the tissues of plants and animals. The cycle starts by absorbing chemical elements by the organism and returned back to air, water, and soil through decomposition. These cycles are energized by solar insolation. These cyclic movements of chemical elements of the biosphere between the organism and the environment are referred to as biogeochemical cycles.

Question 14.
What is the hydrologic cycle?
Answer:
All living organisms, the atmosphere, and the lithosphere maintain between them a circulation of water in solid, liquid, or gaseous form, referred to as water or hydrologic cycle.

Question 15.
What is denitrification?
Answer:
Herbivorous animals feeding on plants in turn consume some of it. Dead plants and animals, excreted nitrogenous wastes are converted into nitrites by the attachment of bacteria present in the soil. Some bacteria can even convert nitrites into nitrates that can be used again by the green plants. There are still other types of bacteria capable of converting nitrates into free nitrogen, a process known as denitrification.

Life on the Earth Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
“Food chains are not isolated linear chains of trophic levels.” Comment.
Answer:
In nature, the food relationship cannot be explained only in terms of a single food chain. A herbivore consumes many types of plants or plant products. Many kinds of animals, other than tiger, derive food from herbivorous animals. Ticks and mites, leeches, and blood-sucking insects are dependent on herbivores and even on carnivores. Thus, food chains are not isolated linear chains of trophic levels.

Depending upon the availability and choice of food, different organisms at each level have a food relationship with more than one organism at the lower levels. A rat, for example, feeds on various kinds of stem, roots, fruits, and grains. In turn, it is consumed by a snake which is eaten by a falcon. The snakes feed on both, frogs and rats. Then, a network of food chains exist, which is called a food web. The food web becomes more complicated when taste and preference, availability, and compulsion are involved.

Question 2.
Describe the functions of various biotic components.
Answer:
Various biotic components include producers, herbivores, carnivores, and decomposers. All organisms require energy for their life processes. Food supplies both energy and materials for the sustenance of life. Green plants produce carbohydrates by photosynthesis and also synthesize proteins and fats. The green plants, therefore, are called producers. The animals that consume this energy are called consumers.

The herbivores like cattle, deer, and goats derive their food or energy directly from plants and are called the first-order consumers. The carnivores like tiger and lion depend on herbivores for their food and energy and are therefore called the secondary or second-order consumers. The non-green organisms like fungi and some bacteria, which do not produce their own food, live on the dead and decaying plants or animals and are consumers of a special type called decomposers.

Question 3.
Distinguish between Taiga and Tundra biome.
Answer:

Question 4.
Describe the energy flow in the biosphere.
Answer:
Energy from the sun enters the living world through photosynthetic organisms and passes on from one organism to another in the form of food.

The organisms which trap solar energy and act as producers also use some energy for their own life processes. Only a portion of the energy trapped is taken by the primary consumers. Animals being more active than plants use much of the energy acquired before they are consumed by the next trophic level. At each stage of energy transfer, some amount of energy is lost from the food chain. The amount of energy transferred to the next higher level thus gradually decreases. The decomposition of dead organisms also releases chemical energy. Eventually, all this solar energy that entered the living system through the producers goes back into the non-living world, not as light but as heat.

Question 5.
Describe the carbon cycle in brief.
Answer:
Carbon is one of the basic elements of all living organisms. It forms the basic constituent of all organic compounds. The biosphere contains over half a million carbon compounds. The carbon cycle is mainly the conversion of carbon dioxide. This conversion is initiated by the fixation of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis. Such conversion results in the production of carbohydrates, glucose that may be converted to other organic compounds such as starch, cellulose, etc. Here, some of the carbohydrates are utilized directly by the plant itself. During this process, more carbon dioxide is generated and is released through its leaves or roots during the day. The remaining unutilized carbohydrates become part of the plant tissue.

The plant tissues are either eaten by the herbivorous animals or get decomposed by micro-organisms. The herbivores convert some of the consumed carbohydrates into carbon dioxide for release into the air through respiration. The micro-organisms decompose the remaining carbohydrates after the animal dies. The carbohydrates that are decomposed get oxidized into carbon dioxide and are returned back to the atmosphere.

Here we are providing Class 11 History Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 2 Writing and City Life. Class 11 History Important Questions with Answers are the best resource for students which helps in class 11 board exams.

Class 11 History Chapter 2 Important Extra Questions Writing and City Life

Writing and City Life Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What do you understand by the term Mesopotamia?
Answer:
It is derived from the Greek language which has to means “the middle river”.

Question 2.
What was the land of Mesopotamia civilization at the beginning of recorded history?
Answer:
It was called Sumer and Akkad.

Question 3.
When did Babylon become an important city?
Answer:
After 200 BC.

Question 4.
Who had released Babylonia from Assyrian domination?
Answer:
It was Nabopolassar in 625 BC.

Question 5.
Who was the last ruler of independent Babylon?
Answer:
Nabonidus.

Question 6.
Write Geographical feature and extent of Mesopotamia Civilization?
Answer:
Undulating plains in northeast, flanked by tree-covered mountain ranges, steppe in the North and desert in South- Plains were fertile.

Question 7.
What has been mentioned in the Old Testament about Mesopotamia?
Answer:
Its book of Genesis refers to ‘Shima’ for Sumer i.e. the land of Mesopotamia civilization. This term has meaning therein explained was “a land of brick-built cities”.

Question 8.
Name the crops grown in Mesopotamia?
Answer:
Wheat, barley, peas, etc.

Question 9.
Name the industries supported by nature in Mesopotamia?
Answer:
These were agriculture or farming, animal husbandry (goat and sheep), Dairy, wool, etc.

Question 10.
What is urbanization?
Answer:
A shift of the economy from primary occupations (Agriculture, fishing, herding, forging) to secondary, occupations (manufacturing, processing, trading) and tertiary i.e. a number of services.

Question 11.
Write the names of necessities imported into Mesopotamian cities’?
Answer:
These items were-wood, copper, tin, silver, gold, shell, and various types of stone slabs. These were imported from Turkey and Iran.

Question 12.
What was and is the cheapest mode of transport?
Answer:
It was and is still the transportation over water because it requires nothing to feed while rowing across the river.

Question 13.
What is verbal communication?
Answer:
It consists of spoken sounds through language and writing.

Question 14.
How is writing a specific verbal communication?
Answer:
Spoken sounds are represented in visible signs in course of writing.

Question 15.
What are tablets?
Answer:
Tablets are like written pages with a difference. These were prepared by scribes themselves while writing on them.

Question 16.
What is the style of writing or script used by Mesopotamians?
Answer:
It is a picture like signs and numbers written on clay tablets. Pictures of oxen, fish, grains, number boats, tools, etc are mainly drawn with various signs.

Question 17.
At what point of need, the writing would have begun in Mesopotamian cities?
Answer:
Wiping would have begun when society needed to keep ‘ records of transactions.

Question 18.
To what extent the clay tablet did prove helpful to archaeologists?
Answer:
As written on clay tablets was an easy medium even for a penniless scribe; a giant account of contemporary life, the archaeologists gained through them. This is the reason, more details than Indus Valley Civilization, the archaeologists obtained about the ‘ life of ordinary people in Mesopotamia.

Question 19.
What was the position of literacy in Mesopotamian civilization?
Answer:
As the syllables were used in place of vowels and consonants in cuneiform signs, very few Mesopotamian could read and write. There were hundreds of signs to learn many of these were complex.

Question 21.
What is meant by the term Uruk?
Answer:
It means the city par excellence.

Question 22.
Apart from being means of storing information and of T sending messages afar what dignity had the writing acquired in a civilization of Mesopotamia?
Answer:
The writing was seen as a sign of superiority of urban culture – apart from being a means of storing information and of sending messages.

Question 23.
How many types of settlements formed cities in Mesopotamia?
Answer:
These were of three kinds –

1. settlements developed artistic temples
2. settlements developed as centers of trade and
3. imperial settlement or cities.

Question 24.
What were the major hazards to agriculture in Mesopotamia?
Answer:

1. Frequent floods in quiet channels of the Euphrates (river) and change, of course, causing immersion of agricultural land forever.
2. Misuse of water by the people living in upstream and villages. Downstream were left without water.
3. Continuous conflicts among groups of farmers on one or other issues.

Question 25.
How do you think the clashes /conflicts between war leaders in Mesopotamia would have checked?
Answer:
It could be possible with the creation of new institutions or practices in society such as the judiciary, the government, etc. A change in the attitude of the community would have checked the clashes between the war leaders. Distribution of water resources later-on reduced the possibility of conflict.

Question 26.
Discuss whether city life would have been possible without the use of metals.
Answer:
Actually, city life first starts with the secondary works, and such power of occupation is possible where different tools of carpentry, carving, inscription, etc. are readily available. Again tools can only be made of metals that were imported by the people of Mesopotamia from Turkey and Iran or across the Gulf. Likewise, exchange was possible because people of those countries were in need of food grains as there was less scope for agriculture but plenty of minerals.

On the above premise, we can see that city life in Mesopotamia was impossible without metals which they imported from other countries.

Writing and City Life Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What are the components that constitute urbanization? Discuss.
Answer:
Urbanization grows only when an economy is developed in spheres other than food production. Urban economics comprise besides food production, trade, manufacturers, and services viz. secondary and tertiary occupations. Again, urbanization takes place only in a.country where the raw material is sufficient, self-sufficiency in food grain production achieved and people generally have come under influence of the countries other than their own where several arts likes, sculpture, handicrafts, masonry, architecture, etc. have grown in fact and the people there are benefited.

One should keep in mind that division of labor is the vital constituent of urbanization. It means, even works is divided into several segments e.g, one will quarry the stone, the other will fetch the same to road or path made for cart or vehicle. Some others will do loading on the car, cart driver will fetch the load to destined place, another person v 11 give it proper shape under the expert guidance of artisan, the sculptor will carve it and then some other person will put the same at an appropriate place. Thus, a single work is divided into a number of units and a particular group of people will act upon it till it is completed. Transport is also a major constituent of urbanization.

Question 2.
How can you say urbanization an agglomeration of distinct artisans, craftsmen, and artists?
Answer:
We hardly see primary jobs like daily, agriculture, etc. in cities. The cities, actually are a grid of craftsmen and traders engaged in secondary and tertiary occupations. Interdependence can be seen in the cities-as city people cease to be self-sufficient and depends on the products or services of other people. For instance, a stone carver requires bronze tools, specific stone slabs, which he would get through traders. On-premises above, we justify the statement that depicts urbanization as an agglomeration of distinct craftsmen and artisans.

Question 3.
Whether city life would have been possible without the use of metals?
Answer:
No, certainly not. Metals are key factors in the formation of urbanization. All arts and artifacts require the use of metal one way or the other. In the case of Mesopotamia cities, the scribes would have not composed epics and other documents had there been no tools for digging soil, sieving the same, kneading. Similarly, a trade would have not been possible without vessels that require carpentry and tools for this craft. The reed used for writing would have not got tip oblique cut, in the absence of a knife made up of iron or bronze.

Question 4.
What, was the importance of writing to city life in Mesopotamia? Explain.
Answer:
We know that all societies have languages in which certain spoken sounds convey certain meanings. It is called verbal communication. Writing is also verbal communication but in different ways. In this manner of verbal communication, spoken sounds are represented in visible signs.

Mesopotamia had invented some signs and numbers to convey their messages, to keep a record of transactions in business, and to record events of the contemporary period. It is natural for city dwellers to keep, records of transactions that occurred at different times which involved many people and a variety of goods. Mesopotamia used to write on clay tablets as we find hundreds of written clay tablets in Mesopotamia sites. These tablets were the precious source from which everything pertaining to that period has become apparent before archaeologists.

Subsequently, the writing was used not only for keeping records but also for making dictionaries, giving legal validity to land transfers, narrating the deeds of kings, and announcing the changes, a king had made in the customary laws of the land. It was Sumerian language till 2400 BC but replaced then by the Akkadian language. This language continued for more than two thousand years i.e. up to the 1st century CE.

Literature in Sumerian language, we also see; in the form of Epic above – Enmerkar, one of the earliest rulers of Uruk. Thus, we can say that writing became an integral part of Mesopotamians.

Question 5.
What was an urban artifact found in Mesopotamia? Describe the structure, appearance of the same, and the purpose for which it was used.
Answer:
Mesopotamia’s urban artifact was that of seal making. These were made of stone in a cylindrical shape. Every seal has been pierced down at the center and fitted with a stick. Pictures have been carved on these stone seals. People of Mesopotamia used to roll them over wet clay in order to create continuous pictures. Some seals are found with cuneiform writing i.e. the script used by them.

These seals were used for authentication of the purity of contents in bags, sachets, and cloth package. In course of sealing, wet clay would be spread on the package or on the mouth of a pot, and then it would get seal rolled through. the stick fitted with the seal. These seals were used equally on a clay tablet duly engraved with a cuneiform script in order to give it authenticity. Thus, we can state that seal was the mark of a city dweller’s role in public life.

Question 6.
Write about the family norms of Mesopotamia?
Answer:
A nuclear family consisting of a man, his wife, and children was the family norm in Mesopotamia. Married son and his family somewhere often resided with his parents. An offer from the bridegroom party and acceptance of the bride’s party was necessary. Groom’s party would offer gifts to the bride’s party. They would eat together on the wedding day and the offering would be made in a temple. Dowry system was also in vogue there in the form of herds, fields, or in cash.

Question 7.
Describe the settlements and structure of colonies in Mesopotamia as discovered by archaeologists in the 1930’s.
Answer:
The archaeologists excavated ordinary houses in Ur, a town in Mesopotamia during the decade of 1930. They found narrow winding streets and irregular shapes of house plots there. It indicates that no town planning was adopted by those people. Drains and clay pipes were found in inner courtyards and it is thought that house roofs sloped inwards and rainwater was channeled via drainpipes into a basin-like safety tank. There was no light from the front side but it has been guessed that these were backdoors allowing sunlight to enter into rooms.

There has. been seen no provision of windows or ventilation in houses found in these colonies. Archaeologists consider this system would also have given families their privacy. The threshold of these houses was raised and as archaeologists have found, a clay tablet, it says, the raised threshold would bring wealth to the house. The said tablet reveals the front door not opening towards another was considered auspicious. According to archaeologists, these were superstitions prevailing in the populace there. They state further that the cemetery was only for the noble or rich people and ordinary were buried under the floors of ordinary houses.

Question 8.
How skillfully the archaeologists have excavated and traced a small town at Abu Salabikh and what conclusion from the remains had they arrived at?
Answer:
Unlike the excavation of the Indus Valley civilization, the Mesopotamia excavators have a much higher standard of accuracy and care. They have excavated this small town about 10 hectares in an area pertaining to the period of 2500 BCE with a population of less than 10,000. They aptly scraped surfaces and the top few millimeters of the mud and could make out different colors, textures, and rows of brick walls or pits and other features. They sieved tons of earth to recover plants and animal remarks.

Thus, carefully they identified species of plants and animals and charred bones of fish, kitchens were identified because they searched out carbonized seeds and fibers at those places. As they found teeth of young pigs on the streets, it was concluded that pigs must have roamed freely here. Again they found pig bones in a burial. The archaeologists made microscopic studies of room floors to decide which rooms in a house were roofed and which were open to the sky.

Question 9.
What source of study does reveal the fact that Mesopotamians were proud of city dwelling? Explain.
Answer:
Mesopotamians had to fight wars from time to time against pastoralists and nomadic communities of the Western desert and thus, the cities destroyed in war; yet they recalled them in their epics namely Gilmesh and Enmerkar. These are in long poems. The former epic says that the ruler of Uruk Enmerkar wanted lapis lazuli and precious metals for the beautification of a city temple and had sent his messenger to Aratta, a distant country but he could not convince the ruler of Aratta, he frequently went there and came back to the king. At last, the message was communicated through a letter inscribed on a clay tablet.

The letter epic says that Gilgamesh conquered several kingdoms, but in a historic battle, his fast friend was killed. That event filled his heart with agony so large as he renounced the kingdom and set out to find the secret of immortality. After his journey to far-off places, he at last returned and could console himself by walking along the city wall. He admired the foundations made of fired bricks that he had put into place. He takes consolation in the city that his people had built. This narration confirms the fact that Mesopotamians were proud of their city more than anything else they had.

Question 10.
Narrate how were the Mesopotamians first to calculate time and mathematics.
Answer:
We know that the events and happening may be transmitted to next generations orally and it requires least records to black and white. However, this may not be the case with scientific and mathematical calculations. A written record is a must for the same. As the remains found by archaeologists, we may assume automatically that the greatest legacy of Mesopotamian to the world is its scholarly tradition of time reckoning and mathematics.

It is surprising to know that around 1800 BCE are tablets with multiplication and division tables, square root tables, and tables of compound interest. The square root of 2 was given as 1+24/ 60+51 /602+10/603. Its answer is 1.41421296 i.e. slightly different from the correct answer 1.41421356. in the urban institution of schools, the students those periods had to solve problems like a field of an area such and such is covered one finger deep in water; find out the volume of water.

We can state in brief that Mesopotamians were known to division the year into 12months, the division of the month into four weeks, the day into 24 hours, and the hour into 60 minutes. The successors of Alexander adopted these time divisions and they transmitted to the Roman world, the world of Islamic, and to medieval Europe in an orderly manner. Archaeologists had concluded on the basis of their finding that Mesopotamians were also known to solar and lunar eclipses, the position of stars, and constellations in the night sky. These all achievements were ascribed to writing. Hence, the writing system was the nucleus around which likewise discoveries had revolved.

Question 11.
Do you think the pre-occupation in the urban world of Mesopotamia is a modern phenomenon? If not so, then why?
Answer:
No, we cannot imagine so because Babylonia acknowledges as the center of high culture by the great Assyrian Kings like Assurbanipal who ruled during 668 – 627 BCE. It is worth mentioning that he had established a Library at his capital in Nineveh. He had collected hundreds of clay tablets on history, epics, omen literature, astrology, hymns, and poems. Cuneiform tablets were written as far back as 2000 BCE were intelligible because Sumerian and Akkadian languages till then taught in schools there. Vocabulary texts, sign lists, and bilingual tablets, the archaeologists have found in the above-said library. They have also traced cataloging of the tablets kept in a particular basket in that library.

On the basis of the above, we cannot imagine the occupation with the urban world of Mesopotamia as the work of modern historians there.

Question 12.
Why do you think Assurbanipal and Nabonidus cherished early Mesopotamian traditions?
Answer:
We think so on the basis of the remains of literature available in the library at Nineveh and the accounts given by Nabonidus, the last ruler of independent Babylon, on day tablets. As per discoveries made by archaeologists, Assurbanipal, the last Assyrian king had settled his capital in Nineveh and ruled during 668-627 BCE. Similarly, Nabonidus ruled during 666 – 331 BCE and Babylon was the premier city of the world during his regime. It was spread on land more than 850 hectares with a triple wall, great palaces and temples, a stepped tower, and a professional way to the ritual center.

It has been discovered by the archaeologists that Assurbanipal, above said king, had established a library containing hundreds of clay tablets on history, epics, omen literature, astrology, hymns, and poems. The king himself had declared that he had checked and collected tablets and stored them all in the library for their use in the future. This declaration itself exhibits his interest to keep alive, the Mesopotamian traditions. In a similar way,’ when we talk about Nabonidus, we find by his own writing how he was interested in giving perpetuity to the religion.

It is plausible to mention that he had appointed his daughter as High Priestess and selected her uniform, as he saw on the carved image of the priestess. Again, his interest to restore continuity to Mesopotamian tradition is ex-facie from repair, he got to be done of the broken statue of Sargon, the king of Akkad who ruled around 2370 BCE. He has himself written on one of the clay tablets that in order to maintain reverence for gods and respect for kingship; he would summon skilled craftsmen and get the statute to be repaired immediately.

Question 13.
Why is Mesopotamia known for city civilization? Discuss the main characteristics of that civilization.
Answer:
In order to answer this question, what needed first is to describe the location of Mesopotamia. In this aspect of the matter, we would like to state that this city presently is part of the Republic of IraQuestion Its geographical location can be represented as under:

Mesopotamia-A land constituting desert, mountains, steppe, and irrigated zone.

As we observe in the map above, there are green plains in the north-east, a stretch of upland i.e. Steppe in the north, tributaries of Tigris in the east, a desert in the south. The desert in the south supports cities because the rivers Euphrates and Tigris carry silt and mud here which has made this desert fertile. Crops grown in this desert are wheat, barley, peas, or lentils. Steppe is the grass-land where cattle like sheep and goats are reared. In its undulating plains, there are trees and wildflowers and this land receives enough rain to grow crops. Tigris and its tributaries provide routes of communication into the mountains of Iran. Assyria, Nineveh, Nimrud, Assur, Baghdad, Babylon, Tell Abusalebikh, Uruk, and Ur were the archaeological sites where this civilization was found.

Mesopotamia thus exists between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and known for its prosperity, city life, rich literature, and its mathematics and astronomy. Eastern Mediterranean, northern Syria, and Turkey followed its writing system after 2000 BCE. The language of this land was Sumerian and Akkadian. It is similar to Hebrew and became widely spoken after 1000 BCE. The important cities were Uruk, Ur, Mari, Abusalebikh, and Assyria.

Question 14.
How the Mesopotamian story and that mentioned in Bible are analogous?
Answer:
God had ordered Noah, a man in course of the water body gobbling-up the entire surface of the earth which was resulting in the destruction of life, that we should do something which might save the complete extinction of life on earth. He took a vast box containing single species each of all species of organisms comprising of both the plants and animal world, making these species seated within, and rowed across the water on a huge boat. Thus, the giant deluge could not destroy the earth. This same story has been restated in the legend of Mesopotamia except for the ‘slight’ change of the man Utanpishtim for Noah in the Bible.

Writing and City Life Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Narrate the important characteristics of Mesopotamia civilization and explain how archaeologists could explain so many things about the cities, the culture, society, and family traits of that period.
Answer:
The important characteristics of Mesopotamia’Civilization can be briefed as under –

1. First writing style discovered by archaeologists pertains to the period 3200 BCE. It contains pictures like signs and numbers.

2. It is the first city civilization in the world. It is that of 600 years earlier than the Indus Valley civilization.

3. The first known language here was Sumerian gradually replaced by Akkadian around 2400 BCE.

4. It was the first civilization where the Cuneiform script was used in writing.

5. It was the civilization of pastoral nomads i.e. Akkadians, Amorites, Assyrians, and Aramaeans.

6. The Warka Head i.e. a female head statute exhibits that sculpture had progressed even before 3000 BCE in this civilization. It is a world-famous piece of sculpture admired for its delicate modeling of the woman’s mouth, chin, and cheeks. It was modeled in a hard stone from Turkey. The sculptor has used lapis lazuli, shell, and bitumen decently in order to figurines eyes and eyebrows.

7. This was the .civilization where the first-ever library established by Assurbanipal, an Assyrian king during 668 – 627 BCE. It contained several hundred clay tablets on history, epics, omen- literature, astrology, hymns, and poems. Again, it was the first civilization in which scribes were assigned with the work of writing and patronized by the rulers. They valued the writing system very first.

8. Architecture in its most progressed state, we only see, very first in this civilization. The palace of king Zimrilim at Mari is worth seeing. The plan of the palace exhibits how skillfully, the building has been constructed. The entrance gate, audience hall, outer court, inner court, kitchen, courtyard, scribes office, lavatory, and bath are the features of this splendid building. As described in the theme, these all rooms and halls were beautifully paved, and painting on the walls and ceilings is worth seeing. There were 260 rooms and a covered area of 2.4 hectares.

9. The seals here were of splendid shape and size. These were cylindrically fitted with a stick so that they could be rolled on the objects meant for sealing. Cuneiform writing and pictures of various animals, we can see on them. These seals were inscribed on stones; of special kinds perhaps, imported from Iran.

10. It was the first civilization in which the war leaders began to contribute to temple construction. He would send men out to fetch
five stones and metals for the benefit of the god and community and organize the distribution of temple wealth in an efficient way by accounting for things that came in and went out. They began to build and rebuild temples at selected spots in their villages. Moon god of Ur or Ivanna (the goddess of love and war) were their main gods.

About cities, the culture, society and family traits-
(a) Cities- Cities began to develop from 5000 BCE in Southern Mesopotamia. These were developed around temples, as a center of trade, and imperial cities. These people first began to build temples. The earliest known temple was a small shrine made of unbaked bricks. Actually, temples were the center of all activities like oil processing, grain grinding, spanning, and weaving of woolen clothes. Employer of merchants and keeper of written records of distributions and allotments of grains all settled near temples. Thus, activities gradually developed in the premises of temples, and these became the main urban institutions. Mari was a trading town that was made capital by king Zimrilim during 1810 – 1760 BCE. The subjects were the pastoral people here as agriculture and cattle rearing were the main occupations. Another town was Ur where a dense settlement with unplanned construction, the archaeologist have found.

(b) Societies- As we know, geographical conditions determine the eating habits, dress, houses, or shelters of the people living in a particular land. Mesopotamia civilization developed in a place with grasslands, deserts, mountains, and in the proximity of rivers: Euphrates and Tigris. Hence, nomadic and cattle rearing people used to live here. These included the Akkadians, Amorites, Assyrians, and Aramaeans. For an instance, the kings of Mari were Amorites whose dress differed from that of the original inhabitants. The society there used to live in unplanned colonies except where a royal palace has existed.

(c) Family traits- There were nuclear family systems openly adopted although a married son and his family often resided with his parents. The father was the head of the family. As per written documents in the form of clay tablets discovered by Archaeologists, an arranged marriage system was in vogue there. A declaration was made about the willingness to marry, the bride’s parents giving their consent to the marriage. Then a gift was given by the groom’s people to the bride’s people. The Dowry system was also in vogue as the bride was given her share of the inheritance by the father at the time of marriage.

Here we are providing Class 11 Geography Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 14 Movements of Ocean Water. Important Questions for Class 11 Geography are the best resource for students which helps in class 11 board exams.

Important Questions for Class 11 Geography Chapter 14 Movements of Ocean Water

Movements of Ocean Water Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What is inner space?
Answer:
The world of oceans and seas is referred to as “inner space,”

Question 2.
What are the important mechanisms by which ocean currents are generated?
Answer:
The important mechanisms are:

1. The drag of winds over the ocean surface, and
2. Unequal forces set up by differences in water density.

Question 3.
Classify the ocean currents.
Answer:
The ocean currents may broadly be classified into cold currents and warm currents.

Question 4.
Give the other name of tropical easterlies.
Answer:
Tropical easterlies are also known as trade winds.

Question 5.
Name the force that changes the direction of water drift in oceans.
Answer:
The Coriolis force changes the direction of water drift in oceans.

Question 6.
What kind of currents results due to differences in water density?
Answer:
Differences in water density set currents in a motion described as thermocline currents.

Question 7.
What is ‘gyre’?
Answer:
Due to the Coriolis effect, the moving water turns and follows an elliptical path and it is known as a gyre.

Question 8.
Which current flows as Kuroshio current after reaching the coasts of Taiwan and Japan?
Answer:
The North equatorial current flows as Kuroshio current after reaching the coasts of Taiwan and Japan.

Question 9.
Name the northern and southern branches of North Pacific current.
Answer:
Alaska and California currents respectively.

Question 10.
Define waves.
Answer:
Waves are oscillatory movements in water, where its particles move in a vertical plane, up and down.

Question 11.
What are the progressive waves?
Answer:
Ocean waves produced by winds are called progressive waves.

Question 12.
What is the difference between flood tide and ebb tide?
Answer:
Rise of sea level is called the flood tide and fall is called ebb tide.

Question 13.
Which is the birthplace of common eels?
Answer:
The Sargasso in the western North Atlantic is surrounded by the Florida current. It is often windless and is clocked with seaweed. It is the birthplace of common eels.

Question 14.
Up to what depth in water, the photosynthesis is possible for plants?
Answer:
The sunlight penetrates water up to 900 metres, but only in the top 100 metres is there enough light for plants to do photosynthesis.

Question 15.
When do the tides attain maximum height?
Answer:
Twice a month, when the earth, the moon and the sun are in a straight line.

Question 16.
At what interval of time do the tides occur on each meridian and why?
Answer:
Each meridian has a high and a low tide at an interval of 12 hrs. and 26 minutes, due to rotation of the earth.

Question 17.
Name two types of waves.
Answer:

1. Transverse waves, and
2. Longitudinal waves.

Question 18.
What is the main cause of the tide?
Answer:
The gravitational interaction of the earth, the moon and the sun is the main cause of tide.

Question 19.
What are the main processes of cooling of ocean water?
Answer:
Back radiation of heat from the sea surface, convection and evaporation.

Question 20.
What are ocean currents?
Answer:
The ocean currents are the regular movement of the surface of the water in a particular direction.

Question 21.
When does spring tide occur?
Answer:
Springtide occurs in the first and last quarter of the moon and sun are almost in a line.

Question 22.
Where does neap tide occur?
Answer:
When the sun and the moon are at right angles at the earth’s centre, neap tide occurs in the first and the last quarter of the moon.

Question 23.
What is the drift?
Answer:
The motion of the ocean water, generally at low velocity, as a result of surface friction from the prevailing winds.

Question 24.
What is salinity?
Answer:
It is the degree to which water contains dissolved salts.

Movements of Ocean Water Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Describe the types of ocean currents and their flow mechanism.
Answer:
Ocean currents are of two types: warm and cold currents. The main currents flow from the low latitudes in tropical zones towards high latitudes in the temperate and sub-polar zones. The cold currents flow from high latitudes to low latitudes.

Question 2.
Give reasons why the height of tidal waves varies from place to place?
Answer:
The height of the tidal waves varies from place to place because of the following reasons:

1. The relative position of the moon and the sun with respect to the earth,
2. Distribution of land and ocean on the earth’s surface, and
3. Irregularities in the configuration of oceans.

Question 3.
What are tides?
Answer:
Tides are periodic rise and fall in the level of water in seas and oceans caused by the differential attraction of the moon and the sun. Twice a day, about every 12 hrs and 26 minutes, the sea level rises and falls. The rise of sea level is called the flood tide and the fall is called the ebb tide.

Question 4.
What is a tidal bore?
Answer:
‘The tidal waves follow the direction of the moon. In certain inland seas, where tidal waves reach from different directions, one can find a number of high tides and low tides. When such waves enter a gulf or river mouths, the tidal crests look like a vertical wall of water rushing upstream, which is known as the tidal bore.

Question 5.
Discuss the impact of prevailing winds on the motion of currents.
Answer:
Air flowing over the water surface exerts a dragging force upon that surface, setting the surface water layer in motion. Prevailing winds, such as the tropical easterlies (trade winds), blowing from east to west, and the middle-latitude westerlies, blowing from west to east, exert a one-way drag on sea surface over a vast expanse of oceans. This drag produces a system of drift currents.

Question 6.
Explain how differences in water density set currents in motion?
Answer:
Differences in water density can also set currents in motion These are described as thermocline currents. A surface water layer in one place may be less dense because it is warmer, or lower in density than the water layer in adjacent place that is colder or has a higher density. The water then moves gently from the region of less to the higher density.

Question 7.
Why the circulation of currents in the Indian ocean is different from the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans?
Answer:
The circulation of currents in the Indian ocean is characteristically different from the Atlantic and Pacific oceans because the Indian ocean is landlocked in the north. The circulation pattern in the northern portion of the Indian ocean changes its direction in response to the seasonal rhythm of the monsoons. There is a clear reversal of currents between winter and summer.

Question 8.
Describe the mechanism of origin of sea waves.
Answer:
It is commonly believed that the waves are generated due to friction on water surface caused by winds. The height of sea waves depends on:

1. The wind speed,
2. The duration of wind from a particular direction, and
3. The fetch or the expanse of water surface over which the wind blows.

Question 9.
Distinguish between progressive and oscillatory waves.
Answer:
The ocean waves produced by winds rapidly through the water are called progressive waves, whereas in oscillatory waves each wave passes a fixed reference point, and the water particles travel through a vertical cycle of motion and return approximately to their original position.

Question 10.
Discuss the properties of waves.
Answer:
Waves are oscillatory movements in water, where its particles move in a vertical plane, up and down. The upper part of the wave is called the crest, and the lower part is called the trough. Each wave has a wavelength, velocity, height and wave period. The distance between two successive crests or two successive troughs is the wavelength. The time taken by a wavelength to pass a fixed point is known as the wave period. The vertical distance between a trough and a crest is called the wave height. The ratio of wavelength to the wave period gives the velocity of the wave.

Question 11.
Distinguish between Swell and Surf.
Answer:

Swell	Surf
(1) Swells are the wind-generated waves in the open sea.	(1) Surf also generated by winds but near the beach.
(2) They move in a uniform pattern of equivalent period and height.	(2) This is foaming water which results from highly dynamic wave capacity.
(3) They are generated in the open ocean	(3) These occur in the breaker zone of a shoreline.

Question 12.
What are the disadvantages of tides?
Answer:

1. Tides are sometimes harmful to ships and boats.
2. Tides check the formation of deltas.
3. Marshes are formed due to accumulation of tidal water.
4. Tides also hinder fishing.

Question 13.
Why does the temperature of seawater decrease with depth?
Answer:
The temperature of seawater is the same as that of the surface water up to a height of 100 metres. The surface of seawater receives, maximum insolation. As the rays penetrate the water, the heat is reduced by scattering, reflection and diffusion.

Question 14.
How can the velocity of the ocean currents be measured?
Answer:
The ocean currents flow like extensive rivers in the ocean. The rate of flow and the width of the currents, however, are not uniform. The Gulf stream, for example, is 80 km. wide and 1.6 km. deep. The Florida current has a velocity of 10 km. per hour on the surface and 3.5 km. at a depth of 200 m.

Movements of Ocean Water Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Write a short note on the vertical circulation of ocean water.
Answer:
Besides the horizontal movement, the vertical circulation of ocean water is also an important phenomenon. Ocean surface is marked with sinking and upwelling caused by wind action, evaporation of surface water, the addition of surface water by rainfall and changes in density due to cooling or warming of the surface layer. A most important cause of the sinking of ocean water on a large scale is cooling of the surface layer by loss of heat to the overlying atmosphere in high latitudes.

During long winters, much heat is lost to space than is gained by solar ^ radiation, thereby the relatively warm surface waters brought polewards v by ocean currents are drilled and increased in density. This water, generally close to the freezing point, sinks to the ocean floor, causing vertical circulation of the water.

Question 2.
Describe the currents of the Pacific ocean in brief.
Answer:
The important currents of the Pacific ocean are North equatorial, Kuroshio current, Alaska current, California current, Oyashio current, Okhotsk current, South equatorial current, South. Pacific current and Peru current.

The North equatorial current from the west coast of Central America reaches the Philippine Island, flowing from east to west in the north Pacific ocean.

Turning northward, the North equatorial current flows along Taiwan and Japan to form Kuroshio current. The currents are influenced by the westerlies from the south-east coast of Japan and tend to flow from west to east as North Pacific current. The current gets bifurcated into the northern and southern branches, called Alaska and California currents respectively after reaching the west coast of N&rth America.

The Alaska current flows anti-clockwise above the coast of British Columbia and Alaska, whereas the California current flows along the coast of California. The cold current, the Oyashio, flows in the North Pacific. Another cold current, named Okhotsk flows in the north Pacific and merges with Oyashio current, which finally sinks beneath the warmer waters of the Kuroshio.

Fig.14.3 current of the Pacific Ocean

The South equatorial current flows in the south Pacific ocean. It flows southward as the East Australian current before meeting the South Pacific current near Tasmania, which flows west to east. Near the south-western coast of South America, it turns north as the Peru Current. It is a cold current that feeds the South equatorial, thus completing the circle.

Question 3.
Distinguish between swash and backwash.
Answer:
When ocean waves arrive at the coast of a continent or island, they encounter shallow Water. The configuration of coast interferes with the progress of the waives. Waves in shallow water are modified into ellipses that become progressively flattered as the coast is approached, As the steeping waves continue to travel shoreward, encountering still shallower water, the crest height increases sharply and the forward slope of the wave becomes greatly steepened. At a critical point, the ‘ waveform disintegrates into a mass of turbulent water called the breaker. Thereafter, it becomes a landward moving sheet of highly turbulent water known as the swash or uprush.

The water then begins to pour seaward down the slope in a reverse flow termed as backwash or back rush. Thus, backwash is the seaward flow of a body of water down the slope after a wave has broken on the beach, in contrast to swash. It may also be called the drag of a recording wave.

Fig. 14.4: Longshore drift showing wave action and the movement of beach materials

Question 4.
Write a short note on a spring tide and neap tide.
Answer:
Tides are the periodic rise and fall in the level of water in seas and oceans caused by the differential attraction of the moon and the sun. Twice a day, about every 12 hrs and 26 minutes, the sea level rises and falls.

Tides do not rise to the same height every day. The relative position of the moon and the sun with respect to the earth is responsible for this variation in the height of tides. On the full moon and the new moon, the moon and the sun are almost in line with the earth, and hence, they exert their combined puli. Therefore, on these two days, tides are the highest and are known as spring tides.

On half-moon, the sun and the moon make a right angle at the earth’s centre. The pulls of the moon and the sun partly cancel each other out. as a result of which there are usually low tides called neap tides. This happens on the first and the last quarter of the lunar month when due to their right angular position to the attraction1 and centrifugal forces of the sun and the moon do not combine. This reduces the height of the tides to the minimum.

Question 5.
If there were no ocean currents, what would have happened to the world? Discuss.
Answer:
The oceans contain about 3% of the total water on earth. This water is always available for evaporation into the atmosphere and its subsequent precipitation on the land and the seas.

The general movement of a mass of ocean water in a fairly defined direction over great distances is called the ocean current. Current ranges in scale from ocean-wide flow system to local currents of small extent and can be generated by several mechanisms.’ Ocean currents are broad of two types: warm and cold currents. The warm currents flow from the low latitudes in tropical zones towards the high latitudes in the temperate and polar zones. The cold currents flow from high latitudes to low latitudes.

Water has an exceptionally great capacity for absorbing heat. The circulation of ocean water through currents helps in distribution of heat received in low latitudes to certain areas of high latitudes. In this way, the oceans modify the climate of the earth. Without ocean currents, this modification of climate would not have been possible.

The distribution of rich fishing grounds in the oceans and seas depends upon the circulation of water of the oceans as they bring nutrients to the surface in some areas. This process of bringing nutrients – both mineral and organic to the surface through the upwelling of water and its circulation is known as the ploughing action of the seas. Ocean currents aid in these processes. The absence of ocean currents would have hampered this process.

Ocean surface is marked with sinking (surges) and upwelling (swells) caused by wind action, evaporation of surface water, the addition of surface water by rainfall and changes in density due to cooling or warming of the surface layer. A most important cause of the sinking of ocean water on a large scale is cooling of the surface layer by loss of heat to the overlying atmosphere in high altitudes.

During long winters, much heat is lost to space, than is gained by solar radiation, thereby relatively warm surface waters brought poleward by ocean currents are chilled and increased in density. This water may be close to the freezing point and, therefore, sinks to the ocean floor. Without ocean currents, all the above activities of the ocean water would not have taken place.

Here we are providing Class 12 Hindi Important Extra Questions and Answers Vitan Chapter 4 डायरी के पन्ने. Important Questions for Class 12 Hindi are the best resource for students which helps in class 12 board exams.

डायरी के पन्ने Class 12 Important Extra Questions Hindi Vitan Chapter 4

प्रश्न 1.
ऐन को किस कारण लगा था कि उसकी दुनिया पूरी तरह से उलट-पुलट गई थी ?
उत्तर
ऐन के घर बुधवार 8 जुलाई, 1942 को संदेश आया था कि उसकी सोलह वर्षीय बहन मार्गोट को ए०एस०एस० से बुलावा आया था। इस बुलावे का अर्थ उसे यातना शिविर से बुलाया जाना था जिसमें उसे जर्मन सैनिकों की दया पर छोड़ देना था। ऐन के माता-पिता को यह बिल्कुल भी स्वीकार नहीं था इसलिए उन्होंने तुरंत भूमिगत हो जाने का निश्चय कर लिया था। इससे ऐन को लगा था उसकी दुनिया पूरी तरह से उलट-पुलट हो गई थी।

प्रश्न 2.
अज्ञातवास की बात सुनकर ऐन के मन में छिपने की कौन-सी जगह आई थी ?
उत्तर
वे कहाँ छिपेंगे-किसी के घर में? शहर में ? किसी परछत्ती पर? यहाँ? कहाँ? वह यह किसी से पूछ नहीं सकती थी पर ये प्रश्न उसके मन में उठ रहे थे।

प्रश्न 3.
ऐन ने अपने थैले में क्या-क्या भरा था? क्यों?
उत्तर
ऐन ने अपने थैले में डायरी, कलर, रूमाल, स्कूली किताबें, कंघी और पुरानी चिट्ठियाँ भरी थीं। वह कपड़ों की तुलना में स्मृतियों को अधिक महत्व देना चाहती थी।

प्रश्न 4.
अज्ञातवास पर जाते समय परिवार के चारों लोगों ने क्या पहना था ? क्यों ?
उत्तर
अज्ञातवास पर जाते समय उन चारों ने इतने अधिक कपड़े पहने थे मानो वे अपनी रात फ्रिज में गुजारने जा रहे हों। वे अपने साथ अधिक-से-अधिक कपड़े ले जाना चाहते थे। सबने दो बनियानें, तीन पैंटें, एक ड्रेस, उसके ऊपर एक स्कर्ट, एक जैकेट, एक बरसाती, दो जोड़ी स्टाकिंग्स, भारी जूते, एक केस, एक स्कार्फ और इनके अतिरिक्त और भी बहुत कुछ पहना था।

प्रश्न 5.
ऐन ने अपनी बिल्ली को कहाँ और किसकी देख-रेख में छोड़ दिया था ?
उत्तर
उन्होंने अपनी बिल्ली को पड़ोसियों के यहाँ छोड़ दिया था। वे ही अब उसकी देखभाल करने वाले थे। वे रसोई में बिल्ली के लिए सेर भर मीट भी छोड़ गए थे।

प्रश्न 6.
लोग चाहकर भीगने वाले ऐन के परिवार की सहायता क्यों नहीं कर सकते थे ?
उत्तर
9 जुलाई, 1942 की बरसात-भरी सुबह वह ढेर सारा सामान कंधों पर लादे हुए डरे-सहमे भाग रहे थे। सुबह काम पर जाते लोग उन्हें बेचारगी-भरी नजरों से देख रहे थे पर उनके सीने पर चमकते पीले रंग के सितारे को देखकर उनकी सहायता भी नहीं कर सकते थे क्योंकि हिटलर के शासन में यहूदियों को अपनी पहचान के लिए पीला सितारा पहनना आवश्यक था।

प्रश्न 7.
परिवार ने कहाँ छिपने का निर्णय किया था ?
उत्तर
पूरे परिवार ने पापा के ऑफिस की इमारत को ही चुना था क्योंकि वहाँ काम करने वाले लोगों की संख्या बहुत ही कम थी। वहाँ मिस्टर कुगलट, मिस्टर क्लीमेन, मिएप और बेय वोस्कुइल नामक चार लोग ही थे, जिन्हें इनके वहाँ छिपने के विषय में बताया गया था।

प्रश्न 8.
अंधेरे में छिपे हुए वे लोग अपना समय कैसे बिताते थे ?
उत्तर
लगभग चार बजे ही अंधेरा हो जाता था और वे पढ़ नहीं पाते थे इसलिए ऊल-जुलूल हरकतों में ही अपना समय बिताया करते थे। वे अंधेरे में व्यायाम करते, पहेलियाँ बुझाते, अंग्रेज़ी या फ्रैंच बोलते और किताबों की समीक्षा किया करते थे। इसके अतिरिक्त अंधेरे में दूरबीन लगा कर पड़ोसियों को रोशनी वाले कमरों में झाँक लिया करते थे।

प्रश्न 9.
अज्ञातवास के दौरान टर्की से संबंधित कौन-सी उत्साहवर्धक अफ़वाह सुनी गई थी ?
उत्तर
अज्ञातवास के दौरान टर्की के एक केंद्रीय मंत्री ने कहा था कि टर्की जल्दी ही तटस्थता छोड़ देगा और इंग्लैंड के पक्ष में हो जाएगा, जिससे ऐन के परिवार वालों का उत्साह बढ़ गया था।

प्रश्न 10.
हज़ार गिल्डर के नोट अवैध घोषित करने का लोगों पर क्या प्रभाव पड़ा ?
उत्तर
हजार गिल्डर के नोट अवैध घोषित होते ही ब्लैक मार्केट का धंधा करने वालों को बहुत बड़ा झटका लगा। इससे बड़ा झटका उन लोगों को लगा जो भूमिगत हो गए थे या जिनके पास धन का हिसाब-किताब देने की क्षमता नहीं थी। नोट बदलवाने की स्थिति में सबूत देना पड़ता था कि यह उनके पास कहाँ से आया था।

प्रश्न 11.
गिएज एंड कंपनी ने हज़ार गिल्डर के अपने नोटों के संकट से किस प्रकार छुटकारा पा लिया था?
उत्तर
गिएज एंड कंपनी के पास हज़ार गिल्डर के कुछ नोट थे जिनका हिसाब-किताब उनके पास नहीं था। उन्होंने इन नोटों से आगामी वर्षों के लिए अनुमानित कर की अदायगी करके इनसे छुटकारा पा लिया था।

प्रश्न 12.
हिटलर अपने सैनिकों से मुख्य रूप से क्या पूछा करता था और उसके सैनिक किस प्रकार उत्तर दिया करते थे ?
उत्तर
हिटलर अपने घायल सैनिकों से प्रायः पूछा करता था कि युद्ध में वे कहाँ घायल हुए थे और उन्हें कहाँ चोट लगी थी। सैनिक उत्साहपूर्वक अपने जख्मों को दिखाकर वह घटना सुनाते थे, जिस के कारण वे जख्मी हुए थे। वे सब हिटलर से हाथ मिलाने के लिए उत्साहित दिखाई देते थे।

प्रश्न 13.
अज्ञातवास के समय ऐन की रुचियाँ क्या थीं ?
उत्तर
ऐन को पत्रिकाओं से फ़िल्मी कलाकारों के चित्र इकट्ठे करने की रुचि थी। वह फ़िल्मों के बारे में ज्ञान इकट्ठा करती थी; उनकी समीक्षा करती थी; प्रति सप्ताह प्रकाशित होने वाली सिनेमा एंड थियेटर पत्रिका ध्यान से पढ़ती थी। वह फ़िल्मी अभिनेत्रियों की तरह अपने बाल सँवारा करती थी और उन्हें अपना स्टाइल बनाया करती थी। कुछ ही देर बाद फिर से वह अपने घुघराले बालों वाले स्टाइल में ही आ .. जाया करती थी।

प्रश्न 14.
अज्ञातवास काटते समय प्राय: कैसी बातें हुआ करती थीं और वे ऐन को कैसी लगा करती थीं ?
उत्तर
ऐन को अज्ञातवास काटते समय रोज़ एक-सी बातें नाली के सड़े पानी की तरह लगती थीं। खाने के वक्त मम्मी या मिसेज़ वान दान हजारों बार पहले सुना चुकी अपने बचपन की कहानियाँ सुनाया करती थीं। डसेल खूबसूरत रेस के घोड़ों, चालौट के महँगे वॉर्डरोव, लीक करती नावों, चार बरस की उम्र में तैर सकने वाले बच्चे, दर्द करती मांसपेशियों और डरे हुए मरीजों की बातें हुआ करती थीं। किसी भी लतीफ़े को सुनाने वाला बस स्वयं ही हँसता था क्योंकि कुछ भी तो नया सुनने-सुनाने को शेष नहीं बचा था।

प्रश्न 15.
हॉलैंड के प्रतिरोधी दल लोगों की किस प्रकार सहायता किया करते थे ?
उत्तर
फ्री नीदरलैंड्स दल के लोग जर्मन लोगों के अत्याचारों से राहत पाने के लिए पीड़ितों के लिए नकली पहचान-पत्र बनाते थे; उन्हें आर्थिक सहायता दिया करते थे और कार्य कर सकने वाले युवा ईसाइयों के लिए काम ढूँढ़ने में सहायता करते थे। वे पुरुषों के साथ राजनीति और काम-धंधे की बातें करते थे, तो औरतों के साथ भोजन और कष्ट के समय की बातें करते थे। सदा सहायक और खुशदिल दिखाई देने वाले वे लोग बच्चों से अखबारों और किताबों की बातें करते थे। वे हर अवसर पर फूल और उपहार दिया करते थे और कष्ट में पड़े अज्ञातवास काटने वालों की सहायता कर उनका दिल जीत लेते थे।

प्रश्न 16.
कैबिनट मंत्री मिस्टर बोल्के स्टीन ने क्या घोषित किया था जिससे ऐन को खुशी मिली थी ?
उत्तर
कैबिनट मंत्री मिस्टर बोल्के स्टीन ने लंदन से उस प्रसारण में कहा था कि जब युद्ध समाप्त हो जाएगा तब युद्ध का वर्णन करने वाली डायरियों और पत्रों का संग्रह किया जाएगा। ऐन खुश हो गई थी कि वह गुप्त एनेक्सी के बारे में सब छपवाएगी।

प्रश्न 17. ऐन ने एक ही दिन में हुए हवाई हमलों के विषय में क्या बताया था ?
उत्तर
ऐन ने बताया कि पिछले ही रविवार 350 ब्रिटिश वायुयानों ने इज्मुईडेन पर 550 टन गोला-बारूद बरसा कर तबाही मचाई थी जिससे सभी घर ऐसे काँप उठे थे जैसे हवा में घास की पत्तियाँ काँप उठती हैं।

प्रश्न 18.
युद्ध-काल में लोगों को किन-किन कष्टों से गुजरना पड़ रहा था ?
उत्तर
(i) खाद्य पदार्थों तथा अन्य सामग्रियों के लिए लोगों को लाइनों में खड़ा होना पड़ता था।
(ii) चोरियों की संख्या अत्यधिक बढ़ गई थी। पीठ मोड़ते ही कारें, मोटर-साइकिलें आदि चुरा लिए जाते थे।
(iii) आठ-दस वर्ष के छोटे-छोटे बच्चे भी चोरी करने में निपुण हो गए थे।
(iv) गली-नुक्कड़ पर लगी बिजली से चलने वाली घड़ियों और सार्वजनिक टेलीफ़ोनों तक का पुर्जा-पुर्जा चुरा लिया ।
(v) लोग फटे-हाल हो गए थे।
(vi) पुलिस अधिकारी किसी पर भी आरोप लगा कर जेल भेज देते थे।
(vii) खाद्य-सामग्री घटिया मिलती थी और बहुत महँगी भी हो गई थी।

प्रश्न 19.
चर्चिल को जन्मजात बहादुर क्यों कहा गया है ?
उत्तर
चर्चिल अपने साथियों स्मट्स, आइजनहावर और आर्नोल्ड के साथ उन फ्रांसीसी गाँवों में गए थे जिन पर पहले ब्रिटिश सैनिकों ने कब्जा कर लिया था और फिर मुक्त कर दिया था। चर्चिल एक टॉरपीडो नाव पर थे जिससे तटों पर गोलाबारी की जाती थी। उन्हें डर नाम की चिड़िया का पता तक नहीं था इसीलिए उन्हें जन्मजात बहादुर कहा गया है।

प्रश्न 20.
ऐन ने कितने समय बाद रात का आमने-सामने साक्षात्कार किया था? उसे तब कैसा अनुभव हुआ था?
उत्तर
ऐन ने डेढ़ वर्ष बाद खुली खिड़की के माध्यम से रात के समय की प्रकृति का आमने-सामने साक्षात्कार किया था। गहरी साँवली . बरसात की रात थी और तेज हवाएँ चल रही थीं। बादलों के बीच लुका-छिपी हो रही थी जिसने ऐन को मंत्रमुग्ध कर दिया था।

प्रकृति से साक्षात्कार की उसकी इच्छा बढ़ गई थी। वह पुलिस, चोर-उचक्कों और मोटे-काले चूहों से डरे बिना ही नीचे चली – गई थी। वह रसोई और प्राइवेट ऑफ़िस की खिड़की से प्रकृति के नजारे देखती रही थी। प्रकृति प्राणियों का अनूठा उपहार है और वह ग़रीब-अमीर के बीच अंतर नहीं करती।

प्रश्न 21.
पुरुष-स्त्री अधिकारों के विषय में ऐन के क्या विचार हैं ?
उत्तर
संभवतः शारीरिक बल, धन कमाने और परिवार चलाने के कारण पुरुष शुरू से ही औरतों पर शासन करने लगे थे, जो ऐन के अनुसार ठीक नहीं था। आधुनिक महिलाएं पूरी तरह स्वतंत्र होने का हक पाना चाहती हैं। महिलाओं का पूरा सम्मान किया ही जाना चाहिए। उन्हें भी सैनिक बनने का दर्जा मिलना चाहिए। औरतें ही मानव जाति की निरंतरता को बनाए रखने के लिए संघर्ष करती हैं; कष्ट झेलती हैं, मेहनत करके खाती हैं, तो वे सम्मान की भी अधिकारिणी हैं।

प्रश्न 22.
पीटर के स्वभाव की दो विशेषताओं का उल्लेख कीजिए जो ऐन को याद नहीं है।
उत्तर
पीटर नास्तिक था। उसे चर्च के प्रति घृणा थी। वह ऐन से अपने हृदय से जुड़ी बातें नहीं करता था। वह ऐसा कोई अवसर ऐन को नहीं देता था जिससे वह उसके हृदय में छिपे भावों को समझ सकती।

प्रश्न 23.
ऐन किस कारण से महिलाओं को सम्मानीय मानती थी? (C.B.S.E. 2012, Set-1)
उत्तर
ऐन का मानना था कि वह संतान को जन्म देती है, प्रसव पीड़ा झेलती है, जो प्रशंसनीय है। कोई सैनिक भी युद्ध में इतनी पीड़ा नहीं झेलता जितनी किसी भी महिला को प्रसव के समय झेलनी पड़ती है।

निबंधात्मक प्रश्नोत्तर

प्रश्न 1.
ऐन फ्रैंकले मिस्टर डसेल का चरित्र-चित्रण किस प्रकार किया है ?
उत्तर
मिस्टर डसेल ऐन के पिता के साथ काम करते थे। विश्वयुद्ध के समय जब ऐन के परिवार को अज्ञातवास के रूप में दो वर्ष बिताने पड़े थे तो मिस्टर डसेल भी उनके साथ पिता के कार्यालय और गोदाम में रहे थे। ऐन और मिस्टर डसेल दोनों एक लंबे और सँकरे कमरे में रूममेट थे। ऐन डसेल के चरित्र के बारे में बताती है कि वैसे तो मिस्टर डसेल बच्चों के साथ खुश रहते हैं तथा उन्हें खूब प्यार करते हैं, परंतु अनुशासन के मामले में वे एक बाबा आदम की सोच रखते थे।

वे लंबे-लंबे उबाऊ भाषण दिया करते जिन्हें सुनकर नींद ही आ सकती थी। चूंकि ऐन और मिस्टर डसेल एक कमरे को शेयर करतेथ इसलिए मिस्टर के लंबे-लंबे उबाऊ भाषण उसे अधिक सुनने पड़ते थे। चूँकि ऐन उनके भाषणों को ध्यान से नहीं सुनती थे इसलिए वे उसे अक्सर डाँट-फटकारा करते थे। ऐन मिस्टर डसेल के बारे में कहती है कि वे एक अच्छे खासे चुगलखोर थे। वे जान-बूझकर ऐन की झूठी सच्ची बातें मम्मी को किया करते थे और माँ भी ऐन को ही एक लंबा उपदेश दिया करती थी। इस प्रकार इस अज्ञातवास में मिस्टर डसेल का चरित्र भी ऐन के लिए एक सिरदर्द था।

प्रश्न 2.
ऐन की डायरी में लिखित द्वितीय विश्वयुद्ध के समय चोरी की घटनाओं का वर्णन कीजिए।
उत्तर
ऐन ‘किट्टी’ को संबोधित करते समय बताती है कि लोगों को सब्जी खरीदने के लिए भी सारा दिन खड़ा होना पड़ता है। डॉक्टर अपने मरीजों को ठीक से नहीं देख पाते क्योंकि गर्दन घुमाते ही उनकी कारें अथवा मोटर साइकिलें चोरी हो जाती हैं। चोरी की घटनाएँ इतनी अधिक बढ़ गई हैं कि डच लोगों ने अंगुलियों में अंगूठी पहनना ही छोड़ दिया है। आभूषण पहनने की प्रथा अब वहाँ खत्म हो रही है। छोटे-छोटे आठ-दस वर्ष के बच्चे भी अब चोरी करने लगे हैं।

वे घरों, दुकानों की खिड़कियाँ तोड़कर अंदर घुस जाते हैं और जो कुछ भी उनके हाथ लगता है सब कुछ चुरा ले जाते हैं। लोग अगर पाँच मिनट के लिए अपना घर छोड़ दें तो सारा घर साफ हो जाता है। गली-नुक्कड़ों पर लगी बिजली से चलने वाली घड़ियाँ चोर उतार ले जाते हैं तथा सार्वजनिक टेलीफोन के पुर्जे गायब हो जाना आम बात हो गई है। चोरी गए टाइपराइटरों, ईरानी कालीनों, बिजली से चलने वाली घड़ियाँ, कपड़ों आदि के लौटाने के लिए इनाम के विज्ञापन अखबारों में अब आए दिन छपने लगे। इस प्रकार इस द्वितीय विश्वयुद्ध से जूझते आम लोगों को चोरी की घटनाओं ने बुरी तरह प्रभावित किया था।

प्रश्न 3.
‘ऐन फ्रैंक की डायरी’ के आधार पर ‘ऐन’ के चरित्र की विशेषताओं का वर्णन कीजिए।
उत्तर
ऐन फ्रैंक डायरी की केंद्र-बिंदु है। दवितीय विश्वयुद्ध के समय बिताए अज्ञातवास की मानसिक एवं शारीरिक पीड़ाओं का वर्णन ऐन अपनी डायरी में दर्ज करती है। इसी आधार पर उसके चरित्र की विशेषताएँ निम्नलिखित हैं

(i) भावुक- ऐन एक भावुक बालिका है। वह अपने माता-पिता के प्रति बहुत प्यार करती है। छोटी-छोटी बातें भी वह दिल से लगा लेती है। मिस्टर डसेल जब उसकी शिकायत मम्मी को करते हैं तो बहुत भावुक हो जाती है। वह इस बात से परेशान है कि प्रत्येक सदस्य उसको तुनकमिजाज और अक्खड़ समझता है। जब उसका मूड खराब हो जाता है तो रात को सोने से पहले अपनी खामियां, जो माँ को बढ़ा-चढ़ा कर बतायी गई थी, के बारे में सोचकर कभी हँसती है कभी रोना शुरू कर देती है।

(ii) अभिनेत्री-ऐन को फ़िल्मी पत्रिका पढ़ने का अत्यंत शौक है। वह हर शनिवार की फ़िल्मी पत्रिका से नायक और नायिकाओं के चित्र काट कर संकलित करती थी। वह आने वाली फ़िल्मी नायक और नायिकाओं के नाम तथा समीक्षाएँ फरटेि से बोलती थी। वह अपने बाल फिल्मी नायिकाओं की तरह सँवारती थी। जब वह केश सज्जा को नए स्टाइल में बनाकर बाहर निकलती तो कोई-न-कोई उसे ज़रूर टोक देता था कि वह फलाँ फ़िल्म स्टार की नकल कर रही है। यह सुनते-सुनते जब वह बोर हो जाती तो वह सीधे गुसलखाने में जाती और उसके बाल पहले की तरह उलझकर धुंघराले बना लेती थी।

(iii) परिश्रम ऐन एक परिश्रमी बालिका है। जब उसे पता चलता है कि अब अज्ञातवास के लिए घर छोड़ना पड़ेगा तो वह अपने थैले सामान से भर लेती है। इन भारी थैलों को अपने कंधों पर उठाकर अपने पिता के कार्यालय तक ले जाती है। जब मार्गोट और माँ थककर सो चुकी थी। तब ऐन अपने पिता के लगातार गोदाम के कमरों की सफाई करती है। चारों तरफ बिखरे सामान को व्यवस्थित करती है। वह बिना इसकी परवाह किए कि उसने पूरे दिन एक बार भी खाना नहीं खाया है, फिर भी लगातार सारे सामान को ठीक से सजाती है।

(iv) प्रकृति प्रेमी-ऐन प्रकृति से अत्यधिक प्रेम करती है। प्रकृति को निहारना उसे अच्छा लगता है। चूंकि रात को रोशनी बंद कर दी जाती है तो वह अपने कमरे की खिड़कियों से पर्दे हटाकर चाँदनी रात में घंटों चाँद-सितारों को देखती है। आसमान, चाँद, बादल, तारों आदि की ओर देखना उसे शांति और आशा से भर देता है। प्रकृति उसे विनम्रता प्रदान करती

(v) नारी के अधिकारों के प्रति सचेत-ऐन एक जागरूक किशोरी है। वह नारी के अधिकारों की पक्षधर है। वह चाहती .. है कि नारी को भी पुरुषों के बराबर सम्मान और अधिकार मिले। उसे भी वीर सैनिकों की भांति अलंकृत किया जाए। प्रल वह पुरुषों की भाँति अपने अधिकारों के प्रति सचेत बने। उसे यह आशा है कि वह अगली सदी में नारी इतनी ताकतवर
बन जाएँगी कि लोग उसका सम्मान करने लगेंगे।

(vi) अतृप्त प्रेमिका-ऐन पीटर को प्रेम करती है। वह ‘किट्टी’ को लिखी एक चिट्ठी में व्यक्त भी करती है, “मैं अगर पीटर के कमरे में एक-दो दिन न जा पाऊँ तो मेरी बुरी हालत हो जाती है। मैं उसके लिए तड़पने लगती हूँ। पीटर एक अच्छा और भला लड़का है लेकिन उसने मुझे कई तरह से निराश किया है।” पीटर और ऐन दोनों बैठकर भविष्य, वर्तमान और अतीत की बातें करते हैं लेकिन ऐन एक असल चीज़ की कमी महसूस करती है और वह उसका पीटर के रति प्रेम है, परंतु पीटर उसे प्यार करते हुए भी उसके सामने प्यार को व्यक्त नहीं करता है। यह बात उसे निराश कर चटा

 

Here we are providing Class 11 History Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 7 Changing Cultural Traditions. Class 11 History Important Questions with Answers are the best resource for students which helps in class 11 board exams.

Class 11 History Chapter 7 Important Extra Questions Changing Cultural Traditions

Changing Cultural Traditions Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Mention the period in which settlement of more and more towns took place.
Answer:
It was the period starting from the fourteenth century and resting at the end of the seventeenth century.

Question 2.
Tell the forms of material on European History?
Answer:
The material on the history of Europe since the fourteenth century is found in the form of documents, printed books, paintings, sculptures, buildings, and textiles.

Question 3.
Who has first given the term “Renaissance” to the cultural changes in Europe during the fourteenth to the seventeenth century?
Answer:
It was a scholar of nineteenth-century Jacob Burckhardt, Professor, the University of Basle in Switzerland.

Question 4.
What was the approach of the German historian, Leopold Von Ranke on an approach of a historian should be?
Answer:
The historian should first collect documents from Government Depts. and give priority to writing about states and politics.

Question 5.
What was the view of Jacob Burckhardt?
Answer:
He understood politics is not the limit of history writing. It is as much concerned with culture as with politics viz. these must hang in balance.

Question 6.
Mention the name of the book composed by Jacob?
Answer:
It was “The Civilization of the Renaissance In Italy”.

Question 7.
What other names can you suggest to the renaissance there?
Answer:
It may be a change in the concept of humanity because the culture was then understood as humanity consisting of subjects like grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy. The term humanist was considered as the master for teaching these subjects.

Question 8.
What will you say the virgin rise of a renaissance in Italy?
Answer:
It is ascribed to its location where ports were en route to Western Europe (Spain, England, etc.), Central, East, and South Asia as also South Africa. The incessant movement of people from varied traditions and cultures thus naturally educated the Italians. Islam’s drive to create a common civilization, Eastern Europe being ruled by the Byzantine empire, reshaping a feudal bond in Western Europe all were added to trade ties and Italy took the maximum benefit of this situation by increasing the number of towns there.

Question 9.
Write some characteristics of Venice and Genoa cities?
Answer:

1. These were independent city States.
2. Venice was a republic.
3. These cities were different from other parts of Europe.
4. These were governed by assistance from wealthy merchants and bankers.
5. The idea of citizenship sprouted on a surface in these cities.

Question 10.
When was humanism adopted in the curriculum of universities in Italy?
Answer:
It was during the fourteenth century when humanism as a college subject was accepted in the curriculum.

Question 11.
In what context, the law became a subject of study?
Answer:
Initially, its scope was confined to courts and notaries (a combination of solicitor and record keeper) but shifted later-on to read in the context of earlier Roman Culture.

Question 12.
Who had labeled culture as humanism?
Answer:
It was by nineteenth-century historians.

Question 13.
What Giovanni Pico Della Mirandola had written on the significance of debate?
Answer:
In this book-“On The Dignity Of Man, Mirandola had mentioned that for the attainment of the knowledge of the truth, it is a debate that energizes the mind for stronger and more vigorous.

Question 14.
Mention the period of the middle ages/medieval period in the history of Europe?
Answer:
It was considered a period of millennium i.e. thousand years from the fifth century to the fourteenth century. This period of thousand years had been further divided into the Dark Ages, The Early Middle Ages, and the Late Middle Ages respectively. The dark age had set in after the collapse of the Roman Empire i.e. a period of 500 years. The Early Middle Ages is the period of 200 years and it is that of 300 years when we talk about the Late Middle Ages.

Question 15.
Do you accede to the majority view of scholars that naming Dark Ages to the period of 500 years is not good?
Answer:
Yes, because this way we neglect the inner stimuli which took so long period to its manifestation. Such classification or taxonomy merely on the basis of perception cannot be said well in my opinion. Instead, this period can be stated as Gestation Age.

Question 16.
Do you think the church could rule in the garb of the feudal system i.e. vassalage only because clergy i.e. the first order had perused the books written in Greek and Roman languages?
Answer:
Yes, it was true. The books composed during the Greek and – Roman Empire had several tips on the organization of the society and ruling multi-linguistic masses in all accommodated vast empires. The clergy could extract a new formula of ruling through vassalage from the said literature on politics.

Question 17.
What do you understand by classical architecture?
Answer:
During this period in question, Roman history was read and remains were dug up by archeologists. It inspired a new style of architecture viz a revival of the Imperial Roman Style. It was called classical architecture.

Question 18.
Why is Michelangallo Buonarroti famous ?
Answer:
It is because of his being alone expert equally in painting, sculpture, and designer. He painted the ceiling in the Sistine Chapel for the Pope, the sculpture known as the Pieta in which Mary had been shown holding the body of Jesus and he had also designed the Duomo of Florence City.

Question 19.
When were the classical texts printed in Italy?
Answer:
It was by 1500 CE, the texts in Latin had been printed in Italy.

Question 20.
What had the students in universities to do prior to printing started?
Answer:
They had to read a few handwritten copies or text in the manuscript. These were insufficient to make available every student a copy of that text.

Question 21.
Why according to Machiavelli all men are bad and ever ready to display their vicious nature?
Answer:
Such was because human desires are insatiable and he is motivated to every fair and unfair means to meet them. It is human, weakness and causes due to unbridled mind.

Question 22.
What is human nature according to Niccolo Machiavelli?
Answer:
Human nature is a repository of positive and negative properties. The positive is praised while the negative is condemned „ by the society. The positive qualities are-Generosity, benediction, compassion, grasping while negatives are-misery, narrow¬mindedness, selfishness, hate, and cruelty.

Question 23.
What had been opined by Leon Batista Alberti on, architecture?
Answer:
He had written that an architect in his view is that 5 professional who gets moved weights, beautifully fixed or assembled ‘ them and amassed bodies (structure) by the varied skilled and unskilled people and the same is used by mankind for shelter. His expertise in completing structure by units makes him immortal.

Question 24.
What was the women’s status in business families?
Answer:
The women used to co-operate with their husbands in every bit of their businesses. In families of merchants and bankers, wives looked after the businesses when the male members were away at work.

Question 25.
What are the thoughts of Balthasar Castiglione expressed in her The Courtier?
Answer:
She has defined the potentials of men and women and suggested women bear certain soft and delicate tenderness with an air of feminine sweetness in all their gestures and actions whatever they do.

Question 26.
What virtues does Castiglione think equally necessary for both men and women?
Answer:
These are-to shun affectation, to be naturally graceful, to be well mannered, clever and prudent, to be neither proud, envious or evil tongued, nor vain-to perform well and gracefully, the sports suitable for women.

Question 27.
Which factors or infrastructures linked Italian towns and courts with the world beyond?
Answer:
These were-

1. Trade and Travel,
2. Military Conquests and
3. Diplomatic contacts.

Question 28.
What changes in the approach of the Church were brought by the students of Universities in north Europe?
Answer:
They called on Christians to practice religion in the way laid down in the ancient texts of their religion and undue rituals should be discarded. They told these additions to ancient religion as dirty patches.

Question 29.
What evil practices were brought to light by Thomas More prevailing as per him in Christian society?
Answer:
The Christian would commit an offense and then receive indulgence through clergy as propagated that surrender to clergy would make the man free from sins so committed.

Question 30.
What good did the translated versions of the Bible in local languages do to society?
Answer:
It enables all people to understand that sins bring adversity in the life of man and indulgence through the blessing of the clergy can do nothing in protection from their evil consequences. They should, therefore, never commit any offense.

Question 31.
What did humanist leaders tell the princes?
Answer:
They told that Donation of Constantine i.e. the document giving judicial and fiscal powers to Clergy was originally issued by the Roman emperor but later on forged by the Churchmen. Hence, they should and can withdraw that power from the Church.

Question 32.
What were the keywords in the Protestant Reformation movement and who was its leader?
Answer:

1. A person has not required to priest in order to establish contact with God.
2. It is faith that guides people to the right Life and entry into Heaven or Salvation. Its leader was a young German monk, Martin Luther.

Question 33.
What was the approach to Salvation expressed by German reformers i.e. Anabaptists?
Answer:
They told that Salvation can be attained only when all kinds of social oppression is ended. They told the masses that God has created all people as equal and they are not expected to pay taxes and had the right to choose their priests.

Question 34.
What did William Tyndale say in favor of Protestantism?
Answer:
He stated that the clergy, with a view to maintaining their authority above the King and even above God himself; had forged the process, order, and meaning of the ancient texts particularly because it was in Greek and Latin, not accessible to the common people. He, therefore, intended to translate Bible into the mother tongue in order to lead the mass with real light.

Question 35.
Do you say Luther’s movement was a supporter of radicalism?
Answer:
No, his views were moderate. However, radicalism had merged with the Protestant movement and started claiming the right of people to remove an oppressive ruler and to choose someone of their own liking.

Question 36.
What development did take place in England by virtue of the Protestant Movement?
Answer:

1. The rulers ended the connection with the Pope.
2. The King was considered the head of the Church.

Question 37.
What was the belief of Christians about the earth?
Answer:
They believed that the earth was a sinful place and the heavy r burden of sin made it immobile. It stands at the center of the Universe around which moved the celestial planets.

Question 38.
What declaration about earth did Copernicus, a scientist make?
Answer:
Copernicus rebutted the elusive belief of Christian society about the earth and told that the earth including other heavenly bodies rotate around the Sun.

Question 39.
Why did Copernicus leave his manuscript “De RevolutionibUs (The rotation) unpublished till his death?
Answer:
Copernicus was afraid of the possible reaction to his theory by orthodox or traditionalist Clergymen. This theory was just opposite to their traditional views that the earth is immovable because of the heavy burden of sin as it was defined as a sinful place.

Question 40.
Who had made popular the theory of the earth as part of the Solar System?
Answer:
It was an astronomer Johannes Kepler who in his Cosmo graphical Mystery demonstrated that the planets move around the sun not in a circle but in ellipses.

Question 41.
Who had established the knowledge as distinct from belief?
Answer:
It was Galileo of Italy who told that knowledge is based on observation and experiments viz. scientific process is required to know the things in their real forms. He further told that beliefs are based on hearsay, myth, concoction, and conjecture always untrue hence, bar the path of Knowledge with illusions.

Question 42.
What percussions do you see when Galileo told the scientific process can only lead to knowledge about one and all things?
Answer:
Its percussions were seen in the form of the genesis of Physics, Chemistry, Zoology and Botony, etc. branches of natural sciences.

Question 43.
Mention the names of institutions opened for the promotion of natural knowledge?
Answer:
These were-The Paris Academy (1670) and Royal Society, London (1662). These institutions held lectures and experiments for public viewing.

Question 44.
Is it good to state Renaissance as a period of dynamism and artistic creativity while the Middle ages as a period of gloom and lack of development?
Answer:
No, we can not state likewise because it would mere perception and not a thorough study of the cause that took birth during the Middle ages. Italy is understood as the first place which gave birth to the renaissance where it can be traced back to the twelfth and thirteenth century when it was observing and analyzing the universal color of culture, people, occupations, etc. from its ports.

Question 45.
Which things had to widen the horizon of European skill?
Answer:
These were-

1. Classical consideration of Rome and Greece.
2. Archeological discoveries,
3. new techniques of navigation,
4. the expansion of Islam and the Mongol conquests,
5. opportunity to learn from India, Arabia, Iran, Central Asia, and China.

Question 46.
What was the important change that took place during the renaissance?
Answer:
It was the separation of the private and public spheres of Life. As, per this change, the public sphere was meant by the area of Government and of formal religion while the private sphere was confined to the family and personal religion. Thus, a man was not simply a member of one of the three orders but he was also a person in his own right. It later- on brought the sense of equal political rights to all individuals.

Question 47.
What impact of the renaissance was seen in Europe?
Answer:
Europe was divided or dissolved into states on a linguistic basis viz. A common language of a region declared itself as an independent state in Europe.

Changing Cultural Traditions Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Mention the names of women intellectually creative during the period of the renaissance in Europe.
Answer:
The women like Cassandra Fedele and Marchesa Isabella state were educated in Latin and Greek. Fedele proved that women can also become a humanist scholar and requested every woman to: acquire humanist education. She said-Even though the study of letters promises and offers no reward for women and no dignity, every woman ought to seek and embrace these studies. Her writings bring into focus the> general regard for education in that, age.

Another Lady Isabella Este ruled the state whole her husband. was absent and the court of Mantua was framed for its intellectual brilliance.

Question 2.
Discuss the underlying principle presumptions constituting independent city-states in Italy.
Answer:
The Government in those city-states was of democratic type as the Government of Venice city was a republic. Some others were court-cities ruled by princes. Underlying principles of constituting these city-states can be summed up as under:-

1. It was an institution of Common Wealth. It was the supreme authority of the city-State through the Council.
2. There was a Council constituted by members, all gentlemen of the city who had attained the age of 25 years.

Interpretation of the term Gentleman eligible to membership of the council-
(a) He should be wealthy and qualified.
(b) His Lineage must noble, not blamed, convicted, tried.
(c) Poor people if from noble lineage, can also be selected as members of Council.

Question 3.
Mention the major developments which took place between the period fourteenth and seventeenth centuries in the orderly timeline.
Answer:
(a) Literary/Institutional/Educational Developments

1. Humanism as a subject of study incorporated into the curriculum of Padua University in Italy (1300).
2. University established in Florence. (1349)
3. Academy of Sciences set-up in Paris (1643).

(b) Published/Translated Works

1. Bible was first printed by Johannes Gutenberg, who made the printing press (1454).
2. Thomas More’s Utopia was published (1516).
3. Martin Luther wrote the Ninety Five Theses (1517).
4. Martin Luther translated the Bible into German (1522).
5. Andreas Vesalius wrote on Anatomy (1543).
6. Isaac Newton’s Principia Mathematica published (1687).
7. Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales published (1390).

(c) Painting/Sculpture/architecture.

1. Brunelleschi designs the Duomo in Florence (1436).
2. Leonardo Da Vinci paints The Last Supper (1495).
3. Michelangelo paints the Sistine Chapel Ceiling (1512).

(d) Exploration/Inventions

1. Portuguese mathematicians calculate latitude by observing the sun (1484).
2. Columbus reaches America (1492).
3. Gerhardus Mercator prepares a cylindrical map of the earth (1569).
4. Gregorian Calendar introduced by Pope Gregory XIII (1582).
5. William Harvey links the heart with blood circulation (1628).
6. Petrarch was given the title of poet Laureate in Rome (1341).

(e) Conquests/Wars

1. Ottoman Turks defeat the Byzantine ruler of Constantinople (1453).
2. Anglican Church established in England with the King as its head (1559).
3. Peasants uprising in Germany (1525).

Question 4.
Locate Venice on the map of Italy and look at G.Bellni’s paintings. How would you describe the city and in what ways was it different from a Catherdral town?
Answer:
Venice is in the vicinity of Padua where a university was set up in Italy. This city is on the coast side of the Adriatic sea. As we see in the painting made by G. Bellini under the title-“The Recovery Of The Relic Of The Holy Cross”, there were multi-story buildings duly ventilated as we observe a number of windows around them. There are chimney-like structures in every building. We see roads and lakes between the rows of these buildings. There were ponds, well decorated on which boats had been rowed. People used to gather around the ponds and enjoy rowing, squatting, and discussing their day-to-day businesses. Here we see no market place in the lanes or streets passing between the buildings.

Cathedral towns were settled on the ruins of the towns of the Roman Empire. These Cathedrals were built by Churches from the money contributed by rich merchants. Actually, large Churches belonging to Monasteries were called Cathedrals. The area around … these Cathedrals became popular because they had become the center of pilgrimage. Gradually, grand towns were settled around these – churches. There was a town square, a church, roads where merchants built shops and homes, an office or auditorium where the people. governing the town could meet and discuss the issues. There was high sense constructed around these towns with several gates for entrance and exit. There were parks, shady trees, playgrounds, and bridges to cross the ditch which was dug for defense around these towns.

Question 5.
Describe the different scientific elements in the work of sixteenth-century Italian artists.
Answer:
Following facts we can mention herein, that confirm the different scientific elements in the works of Italian artists-
1. As a professor at Padua University, Andreas Vesalius had dissected the human body till then, the artists went to the laboratory of that university and studied skeleton there. They started working after study of the right structure of a man.

2. Fragments of art discovered from the ruins of the Roman empire became helpful to the Italian artists as perfectly proportioned men and women were sculpted in them. On the basis of this study, one of the sculptors Donatello made lifelike pictures in 1416.

3. Leonardo da Vinci, a botanist, Physiologist, the mathematician was also an artist. He has painted the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper.

His self-portrait given in this theme is vibrant and catchy. Hence, scientist’s involvement help in the development of artifacts.

4. Scientist taste in arts like sculptures naturally had to emerge life-like vibrancy in the artifacts like The Pieta by Michelangelo, Praying hands drawn by Durer, etc.

5. They understood respect in Geometric designs and they understood changing the quality of light. Their pictures acquire a three-dimensional quality.

Conclusion-Thus, we observe that anatomy, geometry, physics, and moreover, conscience to understand the beauty in its immortal form were the ingredients to Italian art.

Question 6.
Compare the aspirations for women (Fedele) and by a man (Castiglione). Did they have only a weapon of a particular class in mind?
Answer:
Aspirations for Women (Fedele)

1. She had advocated the need for the promotion of education among women.
2. She criticized the definition of freedom as it was in the constitution of republic city-states. Eg. Venice because had favored the desires of men over those of women.
3. She advocated humanist education and wished the women to acquire that education.
4. She stated-“Even though theoretically, women are understood broader figure than that of men, practically, no regard is seen for women in European society. Hence, women should come up at the surface and by virtue of educating them in Humanist Education acquire their respected place in the society.”

Aspirations for Women by a man Castiglione

1. Women are of different ways, manners, words, gestures, and bearing more than men. They, therefore, take over the portfolio of a certain soft and delicate tenderness, feminine sweetness in every gesture (while moving, staying) and in all activities they do.
2. He condemns women’s mimicry or coping of men. He thinks her portfolio is different in anatomy and actions.
3. He also considers that virtues like simplicity, generosity, etiquette, prudence and witty, politeness, tolerance, industrious, benevolent glue this common difference between the man and woman. These are; equally necessary in both males and females.

Thus, Balthasar Castiglione, the author of ‘The Courier’, condemns r rivalry between men and women owing to sex difference. He wants to refer that both are like wheels of life carriage and live with maintaining the proportionate difference between but it should not be made a cause for discrimination. Nature itself has bestowed one with delicacy and the other with a robust and sturdy body. This structure should be maintained with a matching soul and its manifestation.

Question 7.
What were the issues on which the Protestants criticized? the Catholic Church?
Answer:
Catholic Church in criticism by Protestants

1. According to William Tyndale, the clergymen had still not made available copies of the Bible in their mother tongue because they were t intended to keep them still in dark.
2. This they had done so that they might sit in the conscience of the mass through vain superstition and false doctrine to satisfy their proud ambition to bag honor from them above the King and even above God.
3. Martin Luther was the leader of the Protestant Reform movement. He said a person needn’t priests to establish contact with God. It is the faith of God that can guide the people to the right life and entry into heaven.
4. The Church had held supreme power i.e. First Order while no specific portfolio it had in the ruling.
5. Some radical opinion was that God has created all people as equal. Hence, they have the right to choose their priest and there is no need to pay taxes to the Catholic Church.
6. As Head of the Catholic Church (i.e. Pope) had failed in performing its duty to the masses, the King should be made the head of Church in his place/state and not the Pope.
7. Monasteries had been indulged in corrupt practices by the fourteenth century in Europe.

Question 8.
Why would Copernicus have kept as a secret his life-long, the theory telling the true position of the earth?
Answer:
The emotion of fear is actually the first barrier that has crippled the progress of mankind in History. It is perhaps due to ignorance or evasive trend towards facts of life and death, both invariable. No doubt, Copernicus was a scientist and thinker of the renaissance period; his attachment to status, position in Christian society restricted him to get the real theory published in his lifetime. Had he shown adventure, the Christian world would have known the truth earlier and gas salary ended earlier than it had removed. This fear of individual life had thus, prevented Copernicus from a good deed for mankind. He wanted to live a life in comfort but the publication of his theory would have annoyed the First Order in Europe (i.e. clergy) resulting in the loss of them all.

He could assign his manuscript De Revolutionibus (The Rotation) to Joachim Rheticus, one of his followers. It says-“The planets including the earth, rotate around the sun.” The illusory statement of clergymen on the same fact was-“The earth is a sinful place and the heavy burden of sin made it immobile. It stands at the center of the universe around which moved the planets” viz. Earth was understood immovable and at the center of Encircumbulating all other heavenly bodies around it.

We see prima facie contradictions in both theories. It would have certainly robbed worldly comforts as also of the loss of life hence, Copernicus deliberately had caged the truth.

Question 9.
How many aims could conclude the dynamism of earth to the extent this fact was accepted by society and we read about them in our science books?
Answer:
The first and foremost astronomer was Copernicus who gave an observation that planets including the earth rotate around the Sun.

The second brain was that of Johannes Kepler (author of Cosmographical Mystery) who said-“Planets move around the sun not in circles but in ellipses”.

The third brain was that of Galileo Galilei (author of The Motion) who stated-“Solar family constitutes several planets and sub-planets including earth revolving around the sun”.

Thus, the fact that of earth’s being rotatory planet i.e. Blue Star was confirmed by three brains at distinct periods of time hence, we now read this fact and understand it easily.

Question 10.
What do you understand by the scientific revolution in Europe during the period of the renaissance?
Answer:
It was the phenomenon of understanding knowledge and’ belief in their true meaning. It gave the human mind power of logic and not an easy acceptance of things under common or orthodox assumptions. Actually, the author like Galileo remarked that Bible lights the road to heaven but does not say how heaven works. These scientists told that belief is orthodox, sophistication, indiscreet state of mind while knowledge is a product of observation and experiments thoroughly for a longer period. Hence, acquire knowledge through inquisitiveness of mind. In the minds of skeptics and no-believers, God began to be replaced by nature hence, natural sciences like physics, chemistry, and biology expanded rapidly.

Conclusion-On the basis of a human inquisitive mind equipped with logic, natural things were taken for deep observation and experiments thereby revival of knowledge; it was all true to say the renaissance was a period of the scientific revolution.

Question 11.
Will you say the renaissance confined to Europe during the period from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century?
Answer:
No, we cannot describe it as a period of renaissance only confined to Europe because Asia and Africa almost in full were connected with Europe during the period in question. A number of sea and terrestrial routes were till then discovered and maritime trade was in its youth. It is true that Europe could attain cultural changes by the classical civilization of Rome and Greece but technologies and skills in Asia had moved ahead of what the Greeks and Romans had known. Thus, we can state that the Europeans have not learned just from the Greeks and Romans, but from India, Arabia, Iran, Central Asia, and China also. It is a universal fact that papyrus was first invented in China and then paper making technique had spread to European cities.

On the above basis, we would like to state that renaissance in; Europe is owed to renaissance much before sprouted but not described in pages of history due to Europe-centred view-point of historians in ‘ Asia and Africa. Apart from the expansion of maritime trade, the expansion of Islam and the Mongol conquests gave Europeans the opportunity to see ‘ and they learned the technologies discovered earlier in Asia.

Question 12.
What do you understand by Private and Public spheres of Life? Explain.
Answer:
The private sphere of life is consisting of the family and personal religion while the public sphere meant the area of government and of formal religion. These two spheres became separate during the period between the fourteenth and seventeenth centuries. An individual was not simply a member of one of the three orders but he was also a person in his own right. He was not just a member of the guild but he was known for himself. It subsequently became a basis for the principle that all individuals had equal political rights.

Question 13.
Do you agree with Albrecht Durer’s statement that Art is embedded in nature, he who can extract it, has it? Justify your answer with illustrations?
Answer:
Yes, Albrecht Durer is nil correct in stating art’s dwelling in nature. Nature in its physical sense, we observe; embeds in it, beautiful landscapes, landforms, vegetation with changing seasons, water bodies including ponds, fountains, springs, rivers, rivulets, and oceans of different size and shape, the flora and fauna, varied altitudes of mountains and hillocks, isle, island, etc. In its metaphysical sense, it embeds resipiscence, power of imagination, gregarious spirit, dedication and devotion, loyalty, dutifulness, etc. a number of virtues.

It depends, however, on the individual, how he can glorify his actions by positive views of his own nature with that of nature in its physical forms. In case, the artist applies his physical, mental and emotional, powers duly balanced and motivated by inner conscience, the imagination will excel and proposed art gets acclamation from the masses.

Question 14.
Whether Jacob Burckhardt, Professor at the University of Basle in Switzerland is correct in saying that history is as much concerned with culture as with politics? Explain.
Answer:
Culture during the period of 14th to 17th century in Europe was considered as humanities as used by a Roman lawyer and essayist Cicero. It was derived from the Latin wood humanities. Grammar, law, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy were the subjects of humanity. Discussion and debates were stated necessary to develop knowledge in these subjects. Here we see that all these subjects are made for society and rules for ideal living, these all contain in themselves. Politics itself tells the processes of social organization and leadership which is possible only when culture is studied and a smooth link between both is established.

In brief, we can conclude that History itself is both the story of culture and politics. Culture determines which type of governance is possible at the material time and the ruler skilled in culture can only lead the mass. History tells about the education, manners, standard of living, customs, and traditions all incorporated in culture. It simultaneously enables us to know about the government, organization of society during a specific period of time.

Question 15.
Imagine that why would eligibility for membership to Council under the institution of the commonwealth has confirmed to gentlemen of the City, State in Italy?
Answer:
A cursory perusal of the commonwealth and government of Venice composed by Cardinal Gas Paro Contarini reveals that only gentlemen who had attained the age of 25 years, were made eligible to the Council and common people were denied membership. Here common people were understood as those ignobly born, poor, and the people very rude and anti-social. It means cruel, unsober, insolvent, misconduct, loose-character people were deemed as common people.

Their instincts and nature are always unchangeable and nothing else but only disruption in Council, they would have made. Hence, they were denied membership. I would like to describe this criterion of selection of members to Council, the major cause of renaissance which developed from the city-states of Italy. Modem democracy is owed to the city-states however, only seeming or virtual appearance has corrupted this system to the extent, here has emerged criminalization of politics in India. Thus, we see citizenship approach had sprouted in Italy. ^

Question 16.
Write an essay on the Universities in Europe during 14th to 17th century.
Answer:
The genesis of the approach to open universities in Italy was the growth of trade and commerce there. Commerce being the chief activity in the city, demand for lawyers and notaries had been spurt up. They were required to write and interpret rules and written agreements. Later on, Francesco Petrarch had brought change because, by his efforts, the law was studied in the context of earlier Roman Culture. Thus, education program or curriculum in universities incorporated, the subjects of humanities till then, known as culture.

These subjects were grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy. The teachers teaching these subjects were addressed as a humanist. These subjects were not drawn from or connected with religion and emphasized skills developed by individuals through discussion and debate. Extracting the approach of Plato and Aristotle, a humanist of Florence Mirandola states that as bodily energy is strengthened by gymnastic exercise, so beyond doubt in this wrestling place of letters, as it were, the energy of mind becomes far stronger and more vigorous. Thus, he states debates as wrestling-place of letters and considers their necessity for making the mind far stronger and more vigorous.

Conclusion-Addition of humanities to the curriculum of University coincide study of law had made the city-states and court- cities in Italy, more progressive and prosperous. We see the well-planned cities of Venice and Florence. Dante Alighieri had written on religious themes and Giotto had painted lifelike portraits in Florence which gradually made that city intellectual and a center of artistic creativity. The term Renaissance often used to describe a person with many interests and skills like Leonardo Da Vinci and Michelangelo.

Question 17.
‘Models of painting as found in Italy are the most catchy’. Why?
Answer:
The artists in Italy were experts in more than one art. For instance, Leonardo Da Vinci was a botanist, physiologist, Mathematician, and painter, all in one. Similarly, Michelangelo Buonarroti was a Painter, Sculptor, and designer. Leonardo Da Vinci had painted Mona Lisa and the Last Supper. He had invented the flying machine also.

Buonarroti painted the ceiling in the Sistine Chapel, made a sculptor “The Pieta” (in which Mary is holding the body of Jesus) and he himself had designed the dome of St. Peter’s Church. One more person i.e. Filippo Brunelleschi was an architect and sculptor both. He had designed the Duomo of Florence. –

The reasons for being Italian art catchy are thus, all apparent. Firstly because it got the hands of scientists and mathematicians. Knowledge of Geometry helped them to understand the perspective and that by noticing the changing quality of light, their pictures acquired a three-dimensional quality. Secondly, they used oil as a medium for painting which gave the greatest richness of color to paintings than before. We can observe the influence of Chinese and Persian art on these paintings. It could possibly due to the Mongol invasion and expansion of their empire.

Question 18.
Why is Italian architecture in sixteenth-century appear the most excellent and admiring?
Answer:
We can give the following reasons for that excellence in architecture-

1. They (Architects) copied many features of Imperial Roman buildings which were till then carefully excavated by the archaeologists.
2. Architects were skilled in science, mathematics, geometry, etc. subjects.
3. Wealthy merchants and Pope had patronized the architects and incentives as also perks were provided with them.
4. Architects were trained in classical Roman architecture and that of Chinese and Persian arts.
5. Archaeologists excavated the ruins of palaces, attics of the Roman style, and architects studied them in-depth.
6. As artists were known individually, by name hence, it inspired them more to exhibit their specialty in architecture.

Question 19.
Do you ascribe the printed books as major aspects of bringing renaissance in Italy? Explain.
Answer:
Yes, the availability of promoted books increased the pace of the renaissance in Italy. 150 copies of the Bible were first printed in the workshop of Johannes Gutenberg, the German who set-up the first printing press. Prior to that, texts existed in a few handwritten copies which could be read-only by the noble and wealthy merchants.

With the installation of the printing press, a number of universities and school’s set-up and scope of the curriculum had been enhanced. There was no dearth of textbooks, the translated versions of ancient Roman and Greek literature on science, architecture, language, Mathematics, moral Philosophy, etc. As printed books became available, it was possible to buy them and students did not have to depend solely on lecture-notes. Thus, ideas, opinions, and information moved more widely and more rapidly than before. This developed the reading habits among people.

When the printing facility increased, the number of authors began to increase also. Authors on the concept of humanity like Francesco Barbara and Lorenzovalla. In his-On Pleasure, Valla criticized the Christian’s injunction against pleasure and stressed prudence, good manners in dress, and acquisition of education in good culture. There were developed women, writers, also. Venetian Cassandra Fedele, Marchesa of Mantua, and Isabella d’Este were pioneers among them. These writers emphasized women’s education and empowerment.

Conclusion–On the basis of the above points, the contribution of books to Italian society is all apparent and the renaissance was brought to Italy with the help of books on several subjects including humanism, grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, law, moral philosophy, religion, politics, natural sciences, etc.

Question 20.
What were the revolutionary ideas of Petrarch and what they did?
Answer:
According to Petrarch, antiquity was a distinctive civilization that could be best understood through the actual words of the ancient Greeks and Romans.

These revolutionary ideas inspired the archaeologists in the excavation of remains in Rome. It brought a new style of architecture. The classical books were translated into local languages and thus, public awareness was created. The clergymen were known to Roman and Greek Literature but they had not made these widely known to masses. So deciphered books brought real light to the masses and they protested the Church under the flag of the Protestant Reform movement led by Martin Luther. A humanist writer of Florence, Giovanni Pico Della Mirandola inspired the public to acquire knowledge through discuss and debates. A number of universities were established and subjects of humanities were added to their curriculum.

Question 21.
Why did the humanists divide the middle ages dr the medieval period of a millennium in the Dark Ages, The Early middle ages, and the late middle ages?
Answer:
According to the humanists, the dark age had set-in after the collapse of the Roman empire in the fourth century. They enumerated a period of 500 years under the Dark Ages. This was the reason, the later historians assumed that the new age had begun in Europe from the fourteenth century. They argued that in the Middle Ages, the Church had pressed humans to forget all the learning of the Greeks and Romans. It had introduced the system of vassalage or Feudal System in order to enjoy first order in the society.

Question 22.
‘Multilingual translation of the works of Greek writers on one hand and that of Arabic and Persian on other European languages had helped in the transmission of science and technology:- Do you agree to this statement?’
Answer:
Yes, we agree with the above statement because there were books on subjects like administration, mathematics, moral philosophy, grammar, and poetry but beyond the reach of common people. The Church was not willing to propagate its actual contents in order to maintain its supremacy. However, in the fourteenth century, they get translated by Arab people in the Arabic language which could be easily understood by the masses. Some Europeans, just after perusal of these books in the Arabic language, retranslated them in the local languages of Europe.

Muslim writers were Ibn Sina, Al-Razi, and Ibn Rushd. An Arab philosopher Ibn Rushd had tried to resolve the tension between philosophical knowledge and religious beliefs. His methods were adopted by Christian thinkers. Thus, the translation of books in several languages helped in the promotion of science and technologies not only in Italy but in all other parts of Europe also.

Question 23.
Give a brief account of the new concept of human beings.
Answer:

1. It was against the control of religion over human life.,
2. Acquisition of material wealth, power, and glory is a usual instinct of human beings and cannot be tantamounted to vice.
3. The study of history leads a man to strive for a life of perfection hence, Christian injunction against pleasure is untenable.
4. A person of culture should learn good manners including politeness and simplicity.
5. Individuals irrespective of poor and weak are capable of shaping through other means.
6. Self-interest is the most powerful motive hence, a cordial and congenial environment for the proliferation of self-interest should be provided to the people.

Question 24.
Give a brief account of woman status in Europe during 14th to 17th century.
Answer:

1. Women were given no political rights.
2. Families were dominated by husbands.
3. Money obtained in dowry was invested in the family businesses but women had no say in how that business should run.
4. If the father could not arrange to suffice dowry, his daughter would go to the convent to live the life of a nun.
5. They were keepers of the households without any public role given to them.

Thus, on the above points, we can state that the patriarchal system was strictly followed in Europe in whom, women were treated as mere instruments in the hands of their husbands without any right in property and role in public life.

Question 25.
Do you think all women in Europe during the period 14th to 17th century were equally neglected? If not, describe the social and family status of other women?
Answer:
We would like to state here that the position of women in families of merchants and bankers was somewhat different than those of common women in the society. In these families, women used to work as partners to the firm or business and made responsible to look after the businesses when the male members were away at work.

A few women in European society were intellectually more creative and sensitive about the importance of humanist education. One among these women, Cassandra Fedele wished to see all women duly educated in humanism. She had stated-“Even though the study of letters promises but offers no reward for women and no dignity”. That lady was proficient in Greek and Latin and was invited to give orations at the University of Padua in Italy.

She criticized the constitution of republics in which women’s freedom was hanged on the desires of men. Another woman was the Marchesa of Mantua, Isabella d’Este who ruled the state while her husband was absent and the small state of Mantua proliferated under her skilled administration. These women writers wished economic power, property, and education to women so that they could make their respected place in men dominated society of Europe.

Question 26.
What were the percussions of a new culture of humanism all over the world from Italy? Discuss.
Answer:
The new culture of humanism spread all over the world because of trade and travel, military conquests and diplomatic contacts of each two countries as routes of them pass through Italian towns and courts. The different response it could bag from diversified institutions which we can mention as under:-
(a) Churches-In north Europe, the members of the Church summoned Christians to practice religion in the way laid down in the ancient texts of their religion discarding undue rituals. They told them additions made to the simple religion.

The philosophers there declared that Almighty has allowed man to live with complete freedom in the pursuit of happiness. Humanists like Thomas More and Erasmus of England and Holland respectively assumed Church’s role as extortionist simple and common people. Clergy would say the devotee, fill my bag and attain to indulgences against whatever crime/offense you have committed. Such practice was not allowed in religion in its original and simple form.

(b) Rebels and movements-Taxes imposed by Church were protested by peasants. Church’s interference with state matters, restricted the princes. Emperor would issue the document pertaining to the donation of Constantine under his own discretion-was the demand of resented Christians.

Martin Luther, a monk-led the Protestant Reformation movement against the Catholic Church voicing no need for priests in divine matters and it is faith that guides the course of life and to salvation. Luther’s ideas were popularised by Ulrich Zwingli and Jean Calvin.

Radicals protested under the stimulus of Salvation, a state where oppression is ceased in full.

A scholar like William Tyndale in course of Bible translation, stated frankly that it was a trick of clergyman not to make available, the scriptures translated in local languages to the mass with malicious intention to keep them in dark and fill their head and heart with rules, laws, canons fabricated by Clerics for their advantage.

Result-

1. Catholic Church allowed protestants to worship as they choose.
2. The illiterate section of society was driven with the same whip.
3. King or Queen became the head of the Church. Pope’s supremacy ended.
4. Society of Jesus set-up in an attempt to face Protestants by Ignatius Loyola in Spain.

Changing Cultural Traditions Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Why would have this theme named Changing Cultural Traditions? Find the reasons in context with several developments that took place during the 14th to 17th centuries in European society? Would you say it Renaissance or circumstantial regression and revival of cultural pursuit?
Answer:
We would like to state that Italy has been acted as the axil or nucleus to accumulate all traditions and political set-up all over the world, particularly Asia and Africa and the rest parts of Europe; in its vision and sprout with conclusive cream aspects of them all. Italy got this opportunity because of passing all maritime and terrestrial routes through it.

The major developments mutely observed by Italy i.e. the place of emergence of renaissance all over world were-vassalage in Western Europe, its unification and the Latin Church, Eastern Europe under the Byzantine Empire, and Islam’s missionary zeal to create a common civilization.

A model had formed in Italy with changes in cultural tradition and then transmitted to all over the world. Therefore, the title of the theme is consistent with the content.

Results Surfaced:-
(A) Structure and Features of city-states in Italy-

1. Independent city-states and city courts constituted in Italy.
2. Some were republics while some others were court-cities like Mantua.
3. Commonwealth was the government with Councils constituted by gentlemen, noble and ennobled who had attained 25 years ago.

Result-A foundation stone of democracy, however, appeared impliedly.
(b) Humanism in University Curriculum-

1. Universities set-up in Padua and Bologna.
2. Law was the main subject in order to module lawyers and notaries to satisfy the increasing demand
3. Humanities derived from the Latin term Humanitas and understood as a culture.
4. Humanist has understood in the meaning a teacher who taught grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy.
5. These subjects were added to the curriculum of Universities.
6. Discussion and debates in order to gain expertise on these subjects made mandatory.
7. Similarly, observation and experiment with the things in order to known reality about them were made essential or compulsory.

Changes/Results-
1. Debate and discussions on humanity and observation and experiments with issues/things/topics trained the authors like Giovanni. Pico Della Mirandola (On The Dignity of Man), Cardinal Gasparo Contarini (The Common Wealth and government of Venice), Dante Alighieri (religious themes), Artists like Giotto (child Jesus, Assisi), The Pieta sculpture by Michelangelo Buonarroti, Filippo Brunelleschi, etc. The humanists who grew in that period were-Giovanni Pico Della Mirandola, Francesco Petrarch, Venetian Cassandra Fedele, Isabella d’Este, Martin Luther, Thomas More, Erasmus, Ulrich Zwingli, and Jean Calvin.

2. There were people like Leonardo da Vinci, experts in astronomy, painting, architect, and sculpture simultaneously. On account of an inquisitive mind and congenial atmosphere of discussion and debates on subjects of humanities in Universities.

3. Printing Press was installed and it facilitated the study environment. Science academies, schools, and colleges increased in numbers.

4. Classical or Roman and ancient Greek literature on medicine, physiology, religion, theology, and law got translated in Arabic and Persian and then in local languages of Europe. It created public awareness of true religion. It resulted in sheer criticism of the Church, shifting of taxation power to King/Queen, monarchy in place of Churchs, supremacy took place.

5. Peasants movements and Protestant Reform Movement was launched.

6. Radical Protestants took the meaning of salvation, a state when all kinds of suppressions are ended.

7. Church agreed to allow protestants to worship of lord in their own manner.

8. The church accepted the subordination of the King.

9. Women humanists like Cassandra Fedele and Isabella d’Este advocated women’s rights equal to men and emphasized women’s education.

10. Quotations, musings by painters, books on humanities, and natural sciences all are ascribed for Changing Traditions.

11. Classical architecture came into existence owing to excavations by archeologists, the sites of the Roman empire, and towns of that period.

12. Technologies and science were contributed by India, Central Asian countries, China, North Europe, and African countries owing to the growth of trade, travel, and commerce as also Mongol conquests, etc.

13. Separate recognition of the public sphere and private spheres of human life. Individual identity got recognition besides constitutional (i.e. guild, profession, government, and any other organization) identities.

14. Europe dissolved into smaller states on a linguistic basis. A separate sense of identity was thus, understood on the basis of language.

Conclusion-Education is also an integral part of culture having infinite potentials. In the root of cultural changes, we observe systematic promotion of education through ancient Greek and Roman literature on science, administration, religion, architecture, sculpture, painting, etc. during the period in question in Europe? countries symbolized by Italy and her city-states with CommonWealth governance. In brief, it was a phenomenon of education in humanities and natural sciences.

Renaissance or Circumstantial regression and revival of Cultural pursuit-It was actually circumstantial regression and revival of cultural pursuit because vassalage or feudal system and its modified form (i.e. new monarchy) subsequently, have reached the climax and common people had shown annoyance to the system. Churches, monasteries, Cathedrals, Benedictine Churches; all were exporting wealth from the peasants and serfs. Their, interference in the stately affair became intolerable to the princes. Corruption was increased and common people were exploited brutally. The gross effect of that circumstance could be seen in the constitution of city-states in republic and people became curious to know religion in its real form. It stimulated translation of Bible in Local languages, humanities added to university and school curriculum and thus, all ingredients, to changing cultural traditions, were formed.