Category: CBSE Class 12

Here we are providing Class 12 Geography Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 9 International Trade. Geography Class 12 Important Questions are the best resource for students which helps in class 12 board exams.

Class 12 Geography Chapter 9 Important Extra Questions International Trade

International Trade Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
To which category of activities does trade belong ?
Answer:
Tertiary.

Question 2.
Name two types of trade.
Answer:
International and national.

Question 3.
What was the initial form of trade ?
Answer:
Barter system.

Question 4.
What does word ‘Salary’ mean ?
Answer:
It comes from the Latin word Solarium meaning payment by salt which was rare and expensive.

Question 5.
What was the length of Silk Route ?
Answer:
It was 6000 km long form Rome to China.

Question 6.
When was slave trade abolished in USA ?
Answer:
In 1808.

Question 7.
Name three products which are exported from tropical regions.
Answer:
Bananas, Rubber and Cocoa.

Question 8.
Name three aspects of international trade.
Answer:
Volume, sectoral composition and direction of trade.

Question 9.
What is positive balance of trade ? (C.B.S.E. 2013)
Answer:
If the value of exports is more than that of imports.

Question 10.
What is negative balance of trade ?
Answer:
If the value of imports is more than that of exports.

Question 11.
Expand MFN.
Answer:
Most Favoured Nation.

Question 12.
When was WTO formed ?
Answer:
On 1st January, 1995.

Question 13.
Expand WTO.
Answer:
World Trade Organisation.

Question 14.
What do you mean by GATT ?
Answer:
General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs.

Question 15.
Expand OPEC.
Answer:
Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries.

Question 16.
Mention any two problems of barter system. (Delhi 2019)
Answer:
(i) Double coincidence of wants.
(ii) Lack of information.

International Trade Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What do you mean by trade ?
Answer:
The term trade simply means the voluntary exchange of goods and services. Trade is one of the most important human (economic) activities. It refers to the movement of goods and services from areas of surplus to areas of deficit. In simple words, it is exchange of products or marketing between nations and regions. For both the parties, trade is mutually beneficial.

Question 2.
What is barter system ? (C.B.S.E. 2013)
Answer:
The initial form of trade in primitive societies was the barter system. In this, direct exchange of goods takes place. Two parties sell and purchase their products by exchanging these.

Question 3.
Where is barter system practised in India ?
Answer:
Every January, after the harvest season, Jon Beel Mela takes place in Jagirod, 35 km away from Guwahati. It is, the only fair in India where barter system is alive among tribes and communities.

Question 4.
Describe the different forms of art and craft developed in certain countries.
Answer:
(i) China produces the finest porcelains and brocades.
(ii) Iran is famous for carpets.
(iii) North Africa is famous for leather work.
(iv) Indonesian batik cloth is valuable.

Question 5.
Name the major items of merchandise which are traded over the world.
Answer:
The major items of merchandise traded over the world include the following :

• machinary and equipment
• fuel, minerals
• office and telecom equipment
• chemicals and automobiles
• iron and steel
• clothing and utensils.

Question 6.
What are Oil ports ? Give examples.
Answer:
Oil Ports. These ports deal in the processing and shipping of oil. Some of these are tanker ports and some are refinery ports. Maracaibo in Venezuela, Esskhira in Tunisia, Tripoli in Lebanon are tanker ports. Abadan on the Gulf of Persia is a refinery port.

Question 7.
What are Naval ports ? What [Mill are their functions ? Give two examples from India. (C.B.S.E. 2013)
Answer:
Naval Ports. These are the ports which have only strategic importance. These ports serve the warships and have repair workshops for them. Kochi and Karwar are the examples of such ports in India.

Question 8.
What are Entrepot ports ? Give one example.
Answer:
Entrepot Ports. These are collection centers where the goods are brought from different countries for export. Singapore is an entrepot for Asia. Rotterdam for Europe, and Copenhagen for the Baltic region.

Question 9.
Distinguish between International and National Trade.
Answer:
Trade may be classified into two levels : international and national. International trade is the exchange of goods and services among countries across national boundaries. Countries need to trade to obtain commodities they cannot produce themselves or they can purchase elsewhere at a lower cost. When trade occurs between different states of a country, it is called national trade.

Question 10.
What do you know about the Silk Route?
Answer:
The Silk Route is an early example of long distance trade connecting Rome to China— along 6000 km route, and the trade transported Chinese silk, Roman wool and precious metals and many other high value commodities from intermediate points in India, Persia and Central Asia.

Question 11.
Distinguish between Bilateral trade and Multi-lateral trade. (C.B.S.E. 2013-2014)
Answer:
(i) Bilateral trade. Bilateral trade is done by two countries with each other. They enter into an agreement to trade specified commodities against them. A country may import raw materials against export of manufactured goods.
(ii) Multi-lateral trade. Multilateral trade is conducted with many trading countries. The same country can trade with a number of countries. Some countries are granted the status of most favoured nation.

Question 12.
What is free trade ? What are its effects ? (C.B.S.E. 2013)
Or
Mention any two ill effects of free trade and economic globalization. (Delhi 2019)
Answer:
The act of opening up economies for trading is known as free trade or trade liberalisation. This is done by bringing down trade barriers like tariffs. It allows goods and services from anywhere to compete with domestic products.

Effects. It adversely affects the economies of developing countries. They impose unfavourable conditions. Free trade should not let rich countries enter the markets. They should allow the developed countries to keep their own markets protected from foreign products. Free trade does not make the lives of ordinary people more prosperous. It is actually widening the gap between the rich and the poor by making rich countries richer.

Question 13.
How will increasing international trade affect global environment ?
Answer:
Global trade affects many aspects of life :
(i) It can impact everything from the environment to health and well being of the people around the world.

(ii) As countries compete to trade more, production and the use of natural resources spiral up, resources get used up faster than they can be replenished.

(iii) The marine life is also depleting fast, forests are being cut down and river basins sold off to private drinking water companies.

(iv) Multinational Corporations trading in oil, gas mining, pharmaceuticals and agri-business keep expanding their operations at all costs creating more pollutions

(v) Their mode of work does not follow the norms of sustainable development. If organisations are geared only towards profit making, and environmental and health concerns are not addressed, then it could lead to serious implications in the future.

Question 14.
International trade is beneficial to [ both exporting and importing countries.Discuss.
Answer:
The exchange of surplus goods between different countries is called international trade. The countries with surplus production export the particular goods. These countries benefit by earning foreign exchange. Some densely populated countries have to import goods to meet the demand.

These countries depend on the import of raw materials for their economic and industrial development. The economy of Sri Lanka depends upon export of tea. The industrial development of Japan depends upon the import of raw materials.

Question 15.
‘International trade is known as the barometer of economic development of a country.’Why ?
Or
“In modern times international trade is the basis of the world economy.” Support the statment with examples. (C.B.S.E.Outside Delhi 2017)
Answer:
International trade is the index of economic development of a country. International trade has increased manifold during the last forty years. This increase has been due to developed technology and the rapid means of transportation.

Now-a-days, the developed countries are major trading countries. On the other hand, developing countries have a low level of trade. The industrialized countries import raw materials and- export manufactured goods to earn foreign exchange. It helps to raise the standard of living of people of these countries. Thus the per capita trade represents the economic development of a country. But in countries of large population, the per capita trade is low despite the fact that the total amount of trade is high.

Question 16.
Why are the ports called ‘gateway^ of international trade’ ?
Answer:
Port. A port is a place on the coast which provides facilities such as docking, loading and unloading and storage facilities of cargo. A port handles the import and export trade of a country. A port is connected with its hinterland by rail-road transport. These land routes are used to transport the goods to a port from where these goods are exported through ocean routes.

Similarly, imports are sent to the hinterland of a port. In fact, a port acts as a point of entry for the goods received from foreign countries and a point of exit for the goods produced in its hinterland. Therefore, a port is called a gateway of international trade. For example, Kolkata is a commercial gateway for its hinterland comprising states of West Bengal, Bihar, Assam.

Question 17.
Name the geographical conditions necessary for the development of an ideal port.
Answer:
A port handles the import-export trade of a country. It acts as a commercial gateway for its hinterland. The following conditions favour the development of an ideal port:

• Presence of protected Harbour.
• A deep water natural harbour is required.
• Sufficient space is required for docking facilities.
• The hinterland should be well connected with the port by rail-road routes.
• A rich hinterland is required.
• Favourable climate so that the port remains open throughout the year.
• Fuel facilities should be available.

Question 18.
What is the role of ‘World Trade Organisations’ as an international organisation ? Why has the World Trade Organisation been criticised by some countries? Explain the role of World Trade Organisation. (C.B.S.E. 2014)
Answer:
Role of WTO :

• It formulates the global rules of trade between countries.
• It resolves disputes between its member nations.
• It covers trade in services particularly banking and communication facilities.

Criticism :

• Some countries criticise WTO due to effects of free trade.
• It widens the gap between the rich and poor nations.
• WTO focuses on the commercial interests.
• It ignores the issues of environmental pollution, health, right of workers and child labour

Question 19.
Distinguish between Barter trade and Monetary trade.
Answer:

Barter Trade	Monetary Trade
1. It is the earliest form of local trade. 2. Barter system means the exchange of goods without the use of money. 3. It is limited in nature and has the difficulty of rate of exchange of goods.	1. It is modern system of international trade. 2. Monetary  system means the exchange of goods where one item is exchanged for the other. 3. It is used for trade of a number of commodities from different countries.

Question 20.
Distinguish between National trade and International trade.
Answer:

National Trade	International Trade
1. National trade means the wholesale trade on a large scale within the boundaries of a country’. 2. Tt is also known as internal trade. 3. National  trade depends upon the extent of a country.	1. International trade means exchange of goods, services, capital across the national boundaries. 2. It is also known as foreign trade. 3. Internationa trade depends upon the surplus production and purchasing power

Question 21.
Distinguish between favourable balance of trade and unfavourable balance of trade.
Or
What is meant by balance of trade?
Answer:

Favourable balance	Unfavourable balance
1. When there is an excess of exports, it is called a favourable balance of trade. 2. In 1976-77 in India, the imports were of value = 5073 crore rupees while exports were of value = 5142 crore rupees. Balance of trade was + 69 crore rupees. 3. It helps to strengthen the economy of a country.	1. When there is an excess of imports, it is called an unfavourable balance of trade. 2. In India, in 1982-83. imports were of value = 14047 crore rupees. exports were of value = 8637 crore rupees. Balance of trade was 5410 crore rupees. 3. It creates problems for the economy of a country.

International Trade Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Explain any five bases of international trade. (Sample Paper 2017-18)
Or
“The difference in national resources is the basis of international trade.” Analyse the statement. (Outside Delhi 2019)
Answer:
International trade means exchange of surplus goods among different nations. It depends upon some geographical and economic factors. These factors are known as the basis of international trade.

Basis of international trade

1. Difference in Natural Resources. The world’s Natural resources are unevenly distributed because of differences in their physical make up i.e. geology, relief soil and climate.

(a) Geological structure determines the mineral resource base and topographical differences ensure diversity of crops and animals raised. Lowlands have greater agricultural potential. Mountains attract tourists and promote tourism.

(b) Mineral resources are unevenly distributed the world over. The availability of mineral resources provides the basis for industrial development.

(c) Climate influences the type of flora and fauna that can survive in a given region. It also ensures diversity in the range of various products e.g. wool production can take place in cold regions, bananas, rubber and cocoa can grow in tropical regions.

2. Population factors. Size, distribution and diversity between people affect the type anf volume of goods traded.

(a) Cultural factors : Distinctive forms of art and craft develop in certain culture which are prized the world over e.g.: China produces the finest porcelains and brocades. Carpes of Iran are famous while North African leather work and Indonesian batik cloth are prizes handicrafts.

(b) Size of population: Densely populated countries have large volume of internal trade but little external trade because most of the agricultural and industrial production is consumed in the local markets. Standard of living of the population determines the demand for better quality imported products because with low standard of living only a few people can afford to buy imported costly goods.

3. Stage of economic development. At different stages of economic development of countries, the nature of items traded undergoes changes. In agricultural economics, agro products are exchanged for manufactured goods whereas industrialised nations export machinery and finished products and import foodgrains and other raw materials.

4. Extent of foreign Investment. Foreign investment can boost up trade in developing countries which lack in capital required for the development of mining, oil drilling, heavy engineering, lumbering and plantation agriculture. By developing such capital intensive industries in developing countries, the industrial nations ensure import of food stuffs and minerals and a market for finished products. This entire cycle steps up the volume of trade between nations.

5. Transport. In olden times lack of adequate and efficient means of transport restricted trade to local areas. Only high valued items e.g. gems to silk spices were traded over large distances. With expansions of rail, ocean and air transport, better means of refrigeration and preservation, the trade has experienced spatial expansion.

Question 2.
Classify ports on different basis. Describe each type giving examples.
Or
Mention any two features of ‘Commercial Ports’. (Delhi 2019)
Answer:
Types of Ports. Ports are the gateways of international trade. Generally, ports are classified according to the types of traffic which they handle.

Types of port according to cargo handled :

• Industrial Ports. These ports specialise in bulk cargo-like grain, sugar, ore, oil, chemicals and similar materials.
• Commercial Ports. These ports handle general cargo-packaged products and manufactured good. These ports also handle passenger traffic.
• Comprehensive Ports. Such ports handle bulk and general cargo in large volumes. Most of the world’s great ports are classified as comprehensive ports.

Types of port on the basis of location :
(i) Inland Ports. These ports are located away from the sea coast. They are linked to the sea through a river or a canal. Such ports are accessible to flat bottom ships or barges. For example, Manchester is linked with a canal; Memphis is located on the river Mississippi; Rhine has several ports like Mannheim and Duisburg; and Kolkata is located on the river Hoogli, a branch of the river Ganga.

(ii) Out Ports. These are deep water ports built away from the actual ports. These serve the parent ports by receiving those ships which are unable to approach them due to their large size. Classic combination, for example, is Athens and its out port Piraeus in Greece.

Types of port on the basis of specialised functions :
(i) Oil Ports. These ports deal in the processing and shipping of oil. Some of these are tanker ports and some are refinery ports. Maracaibo in Venezuela, Esskhira in Tunisia, Tripoli in Lebanon are tanker ports. Abadan on the Gulf of Persia is a refinery port.

(ii) Ports of Call. These are the ports which orginally developed as calling points on main sea routes where ships used to anchor for refuelling, watering and taking food items. Later on, they developed into commercial ports. Aden, Honolulu and Singapore are good examples.

(iii) Packet Station. These are also known as ferry ports. These packet stations are exclusively concerned with the transportation of passengers and mail across water bodies covering short distances. These stations occur in pairs located in such a way that they face each other across the water body, e.g. Dover in England, and Calais in France across the English Channel.

(iv) Entrepot Ports. These are collection centres where the goods are brought from different countries for export. Singapore is an entrepot for Asia. Rotterdam for Europe, and Copenhagen for the Baltic region.

(v) Naval Ports. These are ports which have only strategic importance. These ports serve warships and have repair workshops for them. Kochi and Karwar are examples of such ports in India.

Question 3.
Describe the different regional trading blocks.
Or
Give information on the growing importance of the Regional Trade Blocks in International Trade with special reference to the European Union (EU) and the Oil Producing and Exporting Countries (OPEC). (Sample Paper 2018-19)
Answer:
Regional Trading Blocks. Most governments, have reduced tarrifs and quotas on import. Many countries have simple bilateral agreements with trading partners.

GATT. Since World War II, the primary vehicle for serving this purpose on the global level has been the General Agreement on Trade and Tarrifs (GATT). Through series of negotiations, it has systematically lowered tarrif rates worldwide. This has contributed to global economic boom in the post World War II period. Most countries of the world are now its members.

WTO. In 1995, the GATT metamorphosed into World Trade Organization (WTO), a permanent rather than adhoc organization in Geneva that also settles trade disputes. The WTO regulates trade in services too, but has yet to include important non-tarrif barriers, such as export restraints, inspection requirements, health and safety standards, and import licensing which inhibit imports.

Other Trading Blocs

1. European Union (E.U.) Originally it was founded in 1957 by six members—Italy, France, West Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxemburg. It was called the European Economic Community (EEC). Later it expanded to include most of Western Europe. The EEC changed into the European Union in 1995. It has harmonized several production and trade regulations.

A common currency, the euro; launched in early 1999, is effectively binding diverse countries into a single economy. With 400 million people, the EU is the largest single market in the world. Within Europe, the Mediterranean and East European states may be benefited more than their northern counterparts because labour moves north and capital flows south.

2. European Free Trade Association (EFTA). In 1960, seven countries i.e. United Kingdom, Austria, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Portugal and Switzerland joined together to form EFTA with the objective of bringing cooperation in the field of trade. They abolished the tarrif between different members countries.

In December, 1972, United Kingdom and Denmark abandoned their membership and joined EEC while Iceland joined this Association and Finland accepted its co-membership. Now again there are seven members.

3. NAFTA. Compared to the EU, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is considerably more modest. NAFTA’s origin lay in the 1988 U.S.—Canada Free Trade Agreement, which gradually eliminated trade restrictions between the world’s two largest trading partners. In 1994, NAFTA was expanded to include Mexico. NAFTA has now been extended to include Latin American countries too. It has thus created a free trade zone extening from Alaska to Tirra del Fuego.

4. Organisation of Petroleum Export Countries (OPEC). The 13 member countries of OPEC are Algeria, Ecuador, Gabon, Indonesia, Iran, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and Venezuela. This organisation was formed by the petroleum producing countries in 1960 to decide policies regarding petroleum crude oil prices.

5. ASEAN. The Association of South East Asian Nations was formed in 1967. Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines and Singapore, growing countries of this region, are its members. Tariff between ASEAN and the rest of the world is growing faster than within the region. ASEAN also helps its members by presenting a joint negotiating stance when dealing with Japan, EU and Australia and New Zealand. India has now become an associate member.

6. SAARC. The South Asian Countries (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Maldives) have formed South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation. One of its objectives is to trade among the member nations. The progress on the trade front has been slow due to Indo-Pak relations.

7. CIS. This block is called Commonwealth of Independent States. Its headquarters are Minskat (Belarus). Twelve countries are its members namely Armenia, Azerbaiyan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan. The items of trade are crude oil, natural gas, gold, cotton, fibre, aluminium. They cooperate on matters of economics, defence and foreign policy.

8. LAIA. It is called Latin American Integration Association. Its headquarters is in Montevideo (Uruguay). Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Columbia, Ecudor, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela are its members

International Trade Important Extra Questions HOTS

Question 1.
Analyse three important aspects of international trade. (CB.S.E. 2009)
Answer:
The nature of international trade has changed significantly in the modern times.

• Due to industrial revolution, the important export trade of raw materials, minerals and foodgrains has increased.
• Raw materials are imported from tropical region.
• Manufactured goods and machinery is exported from countries of temperate latitudes.

Question 2.
‘Globalisation along with free trade can adversely affect the economies of the developing countries.’ Support the statement with examples. (C.B.S.E. 2009, 2011)
Or
Mention any two ill effects of free trade and economic globalisation. (Delhi 2019)
Answer:
Free trade. The act of opening up economies for trading is known as free trade. This is done by bringing down trade barriers like tarriffs. It allows goods and services from everywhere to complete with domestic products and services.

Globalisation, It means to adjust economy of country according to world economy. For this the import duty has been reduced or abolished.

Effects. Globalisation and free trade can adversely effect the economies of developing countries.

• It does not give equal playing field by imposing conditions which are unfavourable.
• Fast means of transport systems help the goods of developed countries to reach market faster than developing countries.
• The developed countries can keep their own markets protected from foreign products of developing countries.
• Dumped goods of cheaper prices can harm the domestic producers.

Here we are providing Class 12 History Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 5 Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society. Class 12 History Important Questions are the best resource for students which helps in class 12 board exams.

Class 12 History Chapter 5 Important Extra Questions Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society

Through the Eyes of Travellers Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
When and where was Al-Biruni born?
Answer:
Al Biruni was born in 973 AD, in Khwarizm in present-day Uzbekistan.

Question 2.
What did Al-Biruni do when he spent many years in India?
Answer:
Al-Biruni spent many years in the company of brahmana, priests and scholars, learning Sanskrit and studying religious and philosophical texts.

Question 3.
Name the book written by Al-Biruni.
Answer:
Al-Biruni wrote the ‘Kitab-ul-Hind’.

Question 4.
Name the book written by Ibn Battuta.
Answer:
Rihla, in the Arabic language, was written by Ibn-Battuta.

Question 5.
When did Ibn-Battuta visit Mecca ?
Answer:
In 1332-33 CE.

Question 6.
Who was known as the inveterate traveller?
Answer:
Ibn Battuta was known as the inveterate traveller.

Question 7.
Who was Duarte Barbosa?
Answer:
He was a Portuguese writer who created a detailed account of trade and society in south India.

Question 8.
Who was Francois Bernier?
Answer:
He was a French man, a doctor, political philosophers and historian who remained in India for 12 years between 1656-1668 CE.

Question 9.
Who gave a detailed description of the Caste system in India?
Answer:
Al-Biruni.

Question 10.
Who disapproved the nation of pollution?
Answer:
Al-Biruni.

Question 11.
Who described Delhi as a vast city with a great population?
Answer:
Ibn-Battuta.

Question 12.
With which purpose did the people travel? Write any four objectives.
Answer:
The people used to travel:

1.  In search of work.
2.  To escape from natural disasters.
3.  To satisfy their sense of adventure.
4. With multi-purpose objectives as traders, merchants, soldiers, priests and pilgrims.

Question 13.
Where did Al-Biruni live? How did he reach Ghazni?
Answer:
Al-Biruni lived in Khwarizm in present-day Uzbekistan. Ghazni’s Sultan Mahmud attacked Khwarizm in 1017 C.E. and took back many poets and scholars to Ghazni. Al-Biruni was one of them.

Question 14.
Give any two characteristics of the writings of Al-Biruni.
Answer:

1. Al-Biruni wrote in the Arabic language.
2. He adopted a critical approach in his writings. In each chapter, he began with a question. Then he gave a detailed description. He concluded with a comparison with other culture.

Question 15.
“Al-Biruni was capable of translating different texts in other languages.” Give example.
Answer:
Al-Biruni was well-versed in many languages which is why he was capable of translating different texts in other languages. He translated many Sanskrit texts in the Arabic language including the grammar of Patanjali. He even translated accounts of a Greek mathematician for his Brahmana friends.

Question 16.
How did Al-Biruni know about the works of the Greek philosophers?
Answer:
Al-Biruni did not know the Greek language. Even then he was familiar with the works of the Greek philosophers. He had read their translations in Arabic.

Question 17.
Name the book written by Ibn-Battuta. What was his observation about female slaves in the sub-continent? (C.B.S.E. 2009 (O.D.))
Answer:
Ibn-Battuta’s book was entitled ‘Rihla’. According to it, the slaves were engaged to do domestic work. He wrote in his book that not only male slaves but the Sultan also employed female slaves to keep a watch on his nobles.

Question 18.
Give a brief introduction of Francois Bernier. How long did he remain in India? (C.B.S.E. 2011 (D))
Answer:
Francois Bernier was a French traveller. He himself was a doctor, political philosopher and a historian. He remained in India for 12 years from 1656 till 1668 C.E. and was closely associated with the Mughal court.

Question 19.
Mention any two characteristics of the cities in the Indian sub-continent, as described by Ibn-Battuta. (C.B.S.E. 2011 (O.D.))
Answer:
According to Ibn-Battuta:

• Indian cities were very prosperous.
• Indian cities were densely populated.

Through the Eyes of Travellers Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Briefly describe the life sketch of Al-Biruni.
Answer:
Al-Biruni was born in 973 C.E., in Khwarizm in present-day Uzbekistan. Khwarizm was an important centre of education. Al-Biruni received the best available education over there and was well versed in many languages including Syrian, Persian, Hebrew and Sanskrit. Although he was not aware of the Greek language he was completely familiar with the works of Plato and other Greek philosophers.

He read their works through their Arabic translations. Mahmud of Ghazni attacked Khwarizm in 101 C.E. and took back many scholars and poets to his capital. Al-Biruni was one of them. He came over there as a hostage but gradually developed a liking for the city. He spent the rest of his life over there and died at the age of 70.

Question 2.
The travels of Ibn-Battuta were arduous and hazardous. Why was he called an inveterate traveller?
Answer:
Ibn-Battuta has beautifully written about the new cultures, peoples, beliefs and values in India. He travelled to India in the fourteenth century. It was the time when travel was more arduous and hazardous than it is today. Ibn-Battuta travelled from Multan to Delhi in forty days.

He completed his travel from Sindh to Delhi in about fifty days. Besides travelling was also more insecure. Ibn- Battuta was attacked by robbers many a time. So he preferred to travel along with other companions. But it was not a guarantee of any safety. Many of his companions had lost their lives on the way. He himself was badly wounded.

A Persistent Traveller. Ibn-Battuta was an inveterate traveller. Before coming to India in 1332—33 CE, he had made pilgrimage trips to Mecca besides travelling extensively in Syria, Iraq, Persia, Yemen and Oman. On his return, the ruler of Morocco ordered him to record all his stories.

Question 3.
According to Al-Biruni, what were the barriers that obstructed his understanding?
Or
Explain briefly the barriers, felt by Al-Biruni, in understanding what he observed in India. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (D))
Answer:
Al-Biruni was aware of the problems that he could face during his travel. He felt that many barriers obstructed his understanding. These barriers can be studied as under :

1. The first barrier was that of the language. He found a lot of difference between Sanskrit and Arabic or Persian. He found it hard to translate ideas and concepts of one language into another.
2. Secondly, he found a lot of difference in religious beliefs and practices.
3. The third barrier was the self-absorption and insularity of the local population.

Question 4.
Which four social categories of ancient Persia were described by Al-Biruni? What he actually wanted to express?
Answer:
Al-Biruni tried to explain the caste system in comparison with its parallels in other societies. He wrote that four social categories were recognised in ancient Persia and these were:-

1. Knights and princes.
2. Monks, fire priests and lawyers.
3. Physicians, astronomers and other scientists.
4. Peasants and artisans were:

Actually, he wanted to express that these social categories were not unique to India. He also expressed that all humans are treated equally in Islam and they differ only in their observance piety.

Question 5.
Which norm of caste-system was not approved by Al-Biruni and why? What does he say about the rigidity of the caste system?
Or
Explain Al-Biruni’s descriptions of the caste system in India. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (O.D.))
Or
Explain Al-Biruni’s description of the caste system. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (D))
Or
‘The conception of social pollution intrinsic to the caste system was contrary to the law of nature.” Examine Al-Biruni’s statement on the Indian caste system. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (O.D.))
Or
State the inherent problems faced by Al-Beruni in the task of understanding
Indian social and Brahmanical practices. Mention any two sources that provided him with the support. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D))
Answer:
Al-Biruni had explained the caste system of India. He did not consider it unique as such social divisions were prevalent in ancient Persia. He accepted the Brahmanical description of the caste system. But he did not accept the notion of pollution and stated that the state of impurity does not remain forever. It soon regains its original condition of purity. The sun cleanses the air. The salt in the sea prevents the water from being polluted. But he finds social pollution as contrary to the laws of nature.

Thus, we see that Al-Biruni’s description of the caste system was deeply influenced by his study of normative Sanskrit books and the views of BrahmAnswer: However, he did not find the system as rigid. For example, the categories like antyaja (born outside the system) provided inexpensive labour to both peasants and Zamindars. Though such classes were socially oppressed, yet they were included in the economic network.

Question 6.
From the descriptions of Ibn-Battuta, what glimpse we find about the agricultural economy of the village and trade and commerce of the sub-continent?
Or
Explain how the prosperity of towns has been explained by the historians on the basis of Ibn- Battuta’s observations. C.B.S.E. 2010 (O.D.))
Answer:
Ibn-Battuta had no interest in describing the prosperity of the cities. But the historians have used his description to argue that the prosperity of the cities depended on the agricultural economy of the villages. According to Ibn-Battuta, Indian agriculture was quite productive. Its reason was the fertility of the land. It was easy for the farmers to grow two crops in a year.

Ibn- Battuta also saw that the sub-continent was part of a global network of communication. The Indian goods were in great demand in Central and South-East Asia. It was profitable to both artisans and merchants. There was a great demand in India for cotton cloths, soft muslin, silk brocade and satin. Ibn-Battuta tells us that some kinds of muslin were so costly that only the rich could afford to buy them.

In other words, the cities of the sub-continent provided exciting opportunities to those who had necessary drive, skill and resources. All the cities had colourful markets having a wide variety of goods. The bazaars were the main places of economic transactions. They were also the hub of social and cultural activities. In fact, the sub-continent was well-integrated with inter- Asian networks at trade and commerce.

Question 7.
Which features of the postal system of the medieval period were given by Ibn-Battuta? How traders were benefitted from this system?
Or
“India had a unique system of communication during the fourteenth century.” Examine the statement of Ibn-e-Batuta. (C.B.S.E. 2017 (O.D.))
Answer:
The state took special steps to encourage merchants. Inns and rest houses were built on almost all the trading routes. Ibn-Battuta was amazed by observing the postal system. Merchants were not only able to send information to a long-distance but also to dispatch goods required at short notice. The postal system was so efficient that while it took 50 days for traders to reach Delhi from Sindh but the news, reports of spies would reach the king in only 5 days.

Question 8.
“Bernier wanted to express India inferior to the western world.” Elucidate the statement.
Answer:
Bernier’s work ‘Travels in the Mughal Empire’ is marked by detailed observations, critical insights and reflects. His account contains discussions trying to keep the Mughal history within the universal framework. He continually compared the Mughal age India with contemporary Europe and generally stressed on the superiority of Europe. His representation of Indian work was on the model of binary opposition in which India is expressed as the inverse of Europe. He also described the differences which he saw so that India could be expressed inferior to the western world.

Question 9.
Why did Bernier consider crown ownership of land as disastrous?
Or
According to Bernier, “Crown ownership of land had disastrous consequences for the state and the I society.” Justify the statement. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (O.D.))
Or
Mention Bernier’s views about private property and crown ownership of land. (C.B.S.E. 2011 (O.D.))
Or
Examine why Bernier was against the idea of crown ownership of land in ‘.Mughal India. (C.B.S.E. 2017 (D.))
Answer:
According to Bernier, the Mughal India did not have private ownership of land. He believed that private property had many virtues. But he regarded the crown ownership of land as harmful to both the state and its people. In the Mughal Empire, the emperor owned all the land. He distributed this land among his nobles. Bernier felt that this principle had disastrous consequences for the economy as well as society.

Because of the crown ownership of land, the landholders could not pass their land to their children. Besides they could not make any long-term investment to sustain and increase production. The crown ownership of land also prevented the emergence of an improved class of landlords as in Western Europe. It had ruined the agriculture and increased oppression of the peasantry. It brought a continuous decline in the living standard of all sections of society. That is why Bernier considered crown ownership of land as disastrous.

Question 10.
How was the Mughal Empire viewed by Francois Bernier? Do Mughal governmental documents justify it?
Answer:
Francois Bernier wrote a book entitled ‘Travels In the Mughal Empire.’ He considered the Mughal rule
as inferior to that of Europe. During the Mughal rule, Indian society had masses of impoverished people. The rich and powerful people were in a minority. There were poorest of the poor and the richest of the rich. There was no middle class in India. This is how Bernier described India during the Mughal rule. The Mughal king was the king of beggars and barbarians. All the cities and towns were in shambles. They were contaminated with polluted air. All the fields were full of bushes and marshes because of the crown ownership of land.

However, there was no Mughal official document to show that the state was the sole owner of the land. For example, Abul Fazl, the official chronicler of Akbar in the 16th century, describes the land revenue as “remunerations of sovereignty”. Many European travellers believed that the king claimed revenue as he provided protection to his subjects. He did not take any rent on land as many scholars believe. In reality, it was neither rent nor a land tax. It was in fact a tax on the crop.

Question 11.
Which type of contrary views about arts and artisans in the Mughal empire is given by Bernier?
Or
Explain the views of Bernier about a more complex social reality of the Mughal empire. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (O.D.))
Answer:
Bernier’s description expresses the Mughal empire as tyrannical but it also indicates a more complex social reality. For example, he wrote that artisans were not encouraged to improve the quality of their products as their profits were appropriated by the State. That is why there was a continuous decline in the level of production. On the other hand, he also wrote that great quantities of precious metals have flowed into India from the world because manufacturers exported in exchange for gold and silver. He also accepted the existence of a prosperous trading community which was engaged in the long-distance exchange.

Question 12.
What were Bernier’s views about of 17th-century cities? Why his description is oversimplified?
Answer:
Around 15% population in the 17th century lived in towns. This ratio was more than the ratio of the urban population of Europe. Then he described Mughal towns as ‘camp towns’ which he meant by those towns which were dependent upon imperial camps for their existence.

He believed that these towns came into existence when the imperial court moved in and declined very quickly when it moved out. He also wrote that they did not have viable social and economic foundations and they were dependent upon imperial patronage.

But this thing is oversimplified as all kinds of towns existed at that time like manufacturing towns, trading towns, port towns, sacred or religious centres, pilgrimage towns, etc. Prosperous trading communities and professional classes were indicators of their existence.

Question 13.
Give a brief description of the merchant communities and other urban groups in Mughal India.
Answer:
Merchants were mutually associated through strong communities or kin ties and were organised through their caste and occupational institutions. These groups in western India were known as Mahajan and their head was known as Seth. In urban centres like Ahmedabad, all the Mahajans were collectively represented by the chief of the merchant community called Nazareth.

Other urban groups included professional classes like teachers (Mulla or Pandit), physicians (hakim or vaid), musicians, architects, painters, etc. Some of them depended upon imperial patronage, some of them lived by serving other patrons and the rest of them served common masses in crowded markets.

Question 14.
What were the views of European travellers and writers about the condition of women in the medieval period?
Or
Explain how the accounts of Ibn, Battuta and Bernier provide us with tantalizing glimpses of the life of Indian ’ women during the 16th and 17th century (C.B.S.E. 2013 (D))
Answer:
All the contemporary Europen travellers and writers had ‘written about the treatment of women which according to them was a crucial point of difference between western and eastern societies. That’s why Bernier specifically mentioned in detail about the inhuman practice of Sati.

Life of women was circled around a few other things as well except the practice of Sati. Their labour was important for both agriculture and non-agriculture production. Women of merchant families were also often engaged in commercial activities and sometimes took mercantile disputes to the court of law. Therefore, it hardly seems that women were only confined to four walls of their homes.

Question 15.
Explain in the real intentions of Buchanan’s journey to India. (CIB.S.E. 2009 (D))
Answer:
Francis Buchanan came to India in 1794. He was a physician and served in the Bengal Medical Service till 1815. He also served as a surgeon to Lord Wellesly, the Governor-General of India for a few years.

But on the request of the Bengal Government, he undertook detailed surveys of the areas under the control of East India Company. He had become an employee of the East India Company.

Buchanan was a keen observer of things. Wherever he went, he saw the stones and rocks. He also observed the different strata and layers of soil. He searched for minerals and invaluable stones. He also recorded the sites where iron-ore, mica, granite and saltpetre were available. He carefully noted the local practices of salt¬making and non-ore mining.

Through the Eyes of Travellers Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Give information about Francois Bernier and other writers who visited India after 1500 C.E.
Answer:
The Portuguese came to India after 1500 C.E. They wrote a lot about the social customs and religious practices of India. Roberto Nobili even translated many Indian books into European languages.

Duarte Barftosa. He was a famous Portuguese writer. He gave a detailed account of pf trade and society in south Indian. But after 1600 C.E., a lot of Dutch, English and French travellers came to India.

Jean-Baptiste Tavernier. He was a French jeweller. He had visited India at least six times. He was fascinated with the trading conditions in India. He compared India to Iran and the Ottoman Empire.
Manucci. He was an Italian doctor. He felt so impressed with India that he settled here and never went back to Europe.

Francois Bernier. He was a Frenchman. He was a doctor as well as a historian and a political philosopher. He had come to the Mughal Empire in search of opportunities. He remained in India for twelve years, i.e., from 1656 to 1668. He was a physician to Prince Dara Shukoh, the eldest son of Emperor Shah Jahan. So he was closely associated with the Mughal court. As he was an intellectual and scientist, he also remained associated with Danishmand Khan, an Armenian noble at the Mughal court.

Comparing East and West. Bernier had visited many parts of India. He wrote accounts of what he saw in these parts of India. He compared his knowledge about India with the situation in Europe. He dedicated all his important writings to Louis XTV, the King of France. Most of his writings are in the form of letters written to ministers and influential officials. He painted the situation in India as bleak in comparison to the development in Europe. However his assessment was not very accurate but his works became very popular. They were translated into English, Dutch, German and Italian. Between 1670 and 1725 C.E., his work was reprinted eight times in French and three times in English.

Question 2.
Explain giving examples of how the accounts of foreign travellers help in reconstructing the history of India from the 10th to 17th century.
Answer:

1. Most of the foreign travellers came from a diverse social environment.
2. The local writers remained indifferent towards them.
3. They compared the Indian environment and social scenario with the outside world.
4. They laid more stress on those things or statements in their descriptions which looked queer and strange to them. This fact made their description interesting and lively.
5. Their descriptions threw light on the contemporary proceedings of the royal court, religious beliefs and the features of architecture and sculpture. It helps in the writing of history.

Important Foreign Travellers

The three most important foreign travellers who visited India during the Middle Ages were Al-Biruni, Ibn-Battuta and Bernier.

(a) Al-Biruni.
1. The detailed description by Al-Biruni is found in his ‘Kitab-ul-Hind’ which provides information about the contemporary religion, philosophy and science. His description is very simple and straight¬forward.

2. Al-Biruni explained that the caste system was not only the characteristic of the Indian society but also of many other societies of the world. In other words, the caste system was prevalent in many countries of the world.

(b) Ibn-Battuta.
1. Ibn-Battuta wrote a book entitled ‘Rihla’. In this book, he declined a beautiful picture of his experiences that he had gathered during his various visits and travels. From his book, we come to know a lot about various aspects of social values and new culture.

2. Ibn-Battuta found paan and coconut very strange. So he made a special mention of them.

3. He also wrote about the cities of India and an efficient postal system.

(c) Francois Bernier.

1. Bernier wrote a book entitled, ‘Travels in Mughal Empire’.
2. Like the books of Al-Biruni and Ibn-Battuta, the book of Bernier is a gist of his experiences.
3. He especially compared the condition of India with that of Europe. He found the life of the people of India is worst in comparison to the life found in Europe.
4. In all his descriptions, he criticises the control of the state over all the land. He considers it responsible for the miserable condition of Indian agriculture and the farmers.

Through the Eyes of Travellers Important Extra Questions HOTS

Question 1.
Why were travels more difficult and risky in the 14th century? Give any two reasons.
Answer:

1. There was a hazard of robbers on long journeys.
2. The travellers could feel home-sick and also fall ill.

Question 2.
‘Ibn-Battuta was an inveterate traveller.’ Give an example.
Answer:
Ibn-Battuta was neither afraid of anything nor did he get tired. He travelled extensively for several years through northern Africa, western Asia, many parts of central Asia, Indian sub-continent and far off places in China. That is why he was known as an inveterate traveller.

Question 3.
Who was Jean-Baptiste Tavernier?
Answer:
Jean Baptiste Tavernier was a French jeweller. He had visited India six times. He was especially impressed by the trade activities in India. He compared India with Iran and the Ottoman Empire.

Question 4.
What was the idea of oriental despotism of the French philosopher Montesquieu? What was the base of this idea?
Answer:
The idea of oriental despotism states that rulers in Asia enjoyed absolute authority over their subjects and the subjects were kept in conditions of subjugation and poverty. The base of this idea was that all the land belonged to the king.

Question 5.
H0w had Bernier described a complex social reality of the artisan, under the Mughals? Give any one reason. (C.B.S.E. 2011 (D)) .
Answer:
Bernier wrote that artisans under Mughals were hardly encouraged to make their product better because their profit was appropriated by the state. That is why there was a continuous decline in the level of production. On the other hand, he wrote that the world’s precious metals were flown into India as manufactures exported in exchange for gold and silver.

Question 6.
“Ibn-Battuta was full of excitement to know about the unfamiliar.” Give reasons in favour of the statement.
Answer:
When Ibn-Battuta arrived in India in the 14th century, the whole of the sub-continent was part of a global network of communication. This communication network stretched from China in the east and North¬western Africa and Europe in the west. Ibn-Battuta himself extensively travelled in these regions. During his journeys, he observed sacred places, spent time with scholars and rulers and even remained on the post of Qazi.

He also enjoyed the cosmopolitan culture of urban centres where people used to speak Arabic, Persian, Turkish and other languages and exchanged ideas, information, stories, etc. These include stories of men noted for their piety, kings, general masses and people of all categories. If anything was unfamiliar in those stories, it was particularly highlighted so that the readers or listeners must be impressed by that. Ibn-Battuta very interestingly described the coconut and the paan. His readers were very much unfamiliar with these two things.

Question 7.
“Bernier’s accounts influenced western theorists from the 18th century. Give arguments to support the statement.
Or
“Bernier’s description of imperial land ownership influenced western theorists like French philosopher Montesquieu and German Karl Marx.” Justify it with suitable arguments. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (D))
Answer:
1. The descriptions of Bernier had a deep impact on many western thinkers. For example, Montesquieu, the French philosopher, used the descriptions of Bernier to develop his idea of oriental despotism. In other words, Montesquieu stated that the rulers in Asia enjoyed absolute authority over their subjects. All the people lived in subjugation and poverty. All the land belonged to the king and there was no private property.

2. Karl Marx further developed this idea as the Asiatic mode of production. He stated that the surplus was taken by the state in India. This led to the emergence of society having a large number of autonomous and egalitarian village communities. The imperial court also respected their autonomy. It was considered as a stagnant system.

Question 8.
Why did travellers, who came to India, sometimes took social inequalities for granted as a natural state of affairs? Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (D)))
Answer:
Travellers, who came to India, sometimes took social inequalities like a caste system for granted because they did not consider it unique. For example, Al-Biruni had explained the caste system in India. He did not consider it unique as such social divisions were prevalent in ancient Persia. He even accepted the Brahmanical description of the caste system. But he did not accept the notion of pollution as social pollution was contrary to the laws of nature. Actually, he tried to explain the caste system in comparison with its parallels in other societies. But he also expressed that all humans are treated equally in Islam and they differ only in their observance piety.

Through the Eyes of Travellers Important Extra Questions Source-Based

Read the following passages and answer the questions that follow :

Question 1.
Music in the Market

Read Ibn Battuta’s description of Daulatabad: In Daulatabad there is a market place for male and female singers, which is known as Taraba. It is one of the greatest and most beautiful bazaars. It has numerous shops and every shop has a door which leads to the house of the owner… The shops are decorated with carpets and at the centre of a shop, there is a swing on which sits the female singer. She is decked with all kinds of finery and her female attendants swing her. In the middle of the market place, there stands a large cupola, which is carpeted and decorated and in which the chief of the musicians takes his place every Thursday after the dawn prayers, accompanied by his servants. and slaves. The female singers come in successive crowds, sing before him and dance until dusk after which he withdraws. In this bazaar, there are mosques for offering prayers… One of the Hindu rulers …. alighted at the cupola every time he passed by this market place, and the female singers would sing before him. Even some Muslim rulers did the same.
(i) From where has this excerpt been taken?
Answer:
This excerpt has been derived from Ibn Battuta’s description of Allahabad.

(ii) What was Taraba? Discuss its three features.
Answer:
(ii) Tarabad was a market place for male and female singers in Daulatabad.

Answer:

(a) It was one of the greatest and most beautiful bazaars.
(b) It had many shops which were decorated with carpets.
(c) There was a swing in the centre of the shop. The female singer sat on it. Her attendants swing her.

(iii) After the prayers, what programme was carried out on Thursday in a large cupola which existed in the middle of the market place?
Answer:
(iii) After the dawn prayers on every Thursday, the chief of the musicians sat in a cupola near the market place. Then the female singers came in successive crowds and sang and danced before him till it was dusk or the evening time. Then they left the place.

(iv) How was the Hindu ruler welcomed when he visited cupola in the market place?
Answer:
The female singers welcomed the ruler by singing songs when he reached the cupola.

Question 2.
The Bird leaves its Nest

This is an excerpt from the Rihla :

My departure from Tangier, my birthplace, took place on Thursday… I set out alone, having neither fellow-traveller nor caravan whose party I might join, but swayed by an overmastering impulse with me and a desire long-cherished in my bosom to visit these illustrious sanctuaries. So I braced my resolution to quit all my dear ones, female and male and forsook my home as birds forsake their nests My age at that time was twenty-two years. Ibn Battuta returned home in 1354, about 30 years after he had set out.
(i) What is Rihla?
Answer:
‘Rihla’ is an account of travels, written in Arabic, by Ibn Battuta. It gives a detailed description of the social and cultural life in the fourteenth century.

(ii) Why did Ibn Battuta set out of his house all alone? How old was he at that time?
Answer:
He set out alone as he had a keen desire to visit illustrious sanctuaries. Besides, he was quite experienced in travelling as he had already gone to Mecca, Syria, Iraq, Persia, Yemen, Oman and a few trading ports of South Africa. He was then just 22 years old.

(iii) Why did he compare himself with the birds?
Answer:
He compared himself to the birds as he felt as free as the birds. The birds leave their nests to see new places. Similarly, he had left all his friends and relatives to know about new places.

(iv) When did he return to his home? How old was he at the time of his return?
Answer:
He returned home in 1354. At that time he was 32 years old.

Question 3.
Education and Entertainment

This is what Ibn Juzayy, who was deputed to write what Ibn Battuta dictated said in his introduction

A gracious direction was transmitted (by the ruler) that he (Ibn Battuta) should dictate an account of the cities which he had seen in his r travel, and of the interesting events which had clung to his memory, and that he should speak of those whom he had met, of the rulers of countries, of their distinguished men of learning, and their pious saints. Accordingly, he dictated upon these subjects a narrative which gave entertainment to the mind and delight to the ears and eyes, with a variety of curious particulars by the exposition of which he gave edification and of marvellous things, by referring to which he aroused interest.
(i) Who was Ibn Juzayy?
Answer:
Ibn Juzayy was deputed to write what Ibu
Battuta dictated.

(ii) What instructions were given by the king to Ibn Battuta?
Answer:
The ruler asked Ibn Battuta to dictate an account of the cities that he had visited during his travel. He also asked Battuta to record the interesting events besides his meetings with rulers, distinguished learned men and pious saints of other countries.

(iii) What was the impact of the narrative of Ibn Battuta on the author?
Answer:
The narrative of Ibn Battuta entertained the mind of the author. It also delighted his ears and eyes.

(iv) From where had Ibn Battuta come? Which places or regions he visited? Tell anyone problem that he faced during his travel?
Answer:
Ibn Battuta had come from Morocco. He had visited North Africa, West Asia, Central Asia and China. He had to face many highway robbers during his travels.

Question 4.
Nuts like a Mali’s Head

The following is how Ibn Battuta described the coconut :

These trees are among the most peculiar trees in kind and most astonishing inhabit. They look exactly like date-palms, without any difference between them except that the one produces nuts as its fruits and the other produces dates. The nut of a coconut tree resembles a man’s head, for in it are what look like two eyes and a mouth, and the inside of it when it is green looks like the brain and attached to it is a fibre which looks like hair. They make from these cords with which they sew up ships instead of (using) iron nails, and they (also) make from it cables for vessels.
(i) Why has Ibn, Battuta described coconut?
Answer:
Ibn Battuta described the coconut because it looked peculiar and astonishing.

(ii) What similarity and dissimilarity did he find in the coconut and date-palm trees?
Answer:
(a) The coconut tree exactly looks like the date-palm. There is no difference between the two if been looked at.
(b) The dissimilarity between the two is quite evident. The coconut tree produces nuts as its fruits whereas the date-palm produces dates.

(iii) How has he compared the coconut to a man’s head?
Answer:
According to Ibn Battuta, the nut of a coconut tree resembles a man’s head. It has two eyes and a mouth when it is green, its inner part looks like the brain. It has also fibre which looks like hair.

(iv) According to Ibn Battuta, for what purpose are the fibres used by the people? Write two points.
Answer:
(a) The fibre was used to make cords
which were used to sew up the ships instead of iron-nails.
(b) It was used to make cables for vessels.

Question 5.
Travelling with the Mughal Army

Bernier often travelled with the army. This is an excerpt from his description of the army’s march to Kashmir :
I am expected to keep two good Turkoman horses, and I also take with me a powerful Persian camel and driver, a groom for my horses, a cook and a servant to go before my horse with a flask of water in his hand, according to the custom of the country. I am also provided with every useful article, such as a tent of moderate size, a carpet, a portable bed made of four very strong but light canes, a pillow, a mattress, round leather table-cloths used at meals, some few napkins of dyed cloth, three small bags with culinary utensils which are all placed in a large bag, and this bag is again carried in a very capacious and strong double sack or net made of leather thongs.

This double sack likewise contains the provisions, linen and wearing apparel, both of master and servants. I have taken care to lay in a stock of excellent rice for five or six days’ consumption, of sweet biscuits flavoured with anise (a herb), of limes and sugar. Nor have I forgotten a linen bag with its small iron hook for the purpose of suspending and draining dahi or curds; nothing being considered so refreshing in this country as lemonade and dahi.
(i) Who was Bernier? Whom did he dedicate his most famous creation?
Answer:

Bernier was a French traveller. He remained in India for twelve years, that is, from 1656 to 1668. He was closely associated with the Mughal court. He was a physician to Prince Dara Shukoh, the eldest son of Emperor Shah Jahan. He dedicated his major writing to Louis XIV, the King of France.

(ii) What was expected of him?
Answer:
Bernier was a French traveller. He remained in India for twelve years, that is, from 1656 to 1668. He was closely associated with the Mughal court. He was a physician to Prince Dara Shukoh, the eldest son of Emperor Shah Jahan. He dedicated his major writing to Louis XIV, the King of France.

(iii) Except food material, what else was he given? Name any eight things.
Answer:
He was expected to. see two good Turkoman horses.
(a) A powerful Persian camel and driver.
(b) A groom for his horses.
(c) A cook.
(d) A servant
(e) A tent of moderate size.
(f) A carpet.
(g) A caned portable bed. ‘
(h) A pillow and a mattress.

(iv) Name any four things given to him to eat.
Answer:
(a) Excellent Rice.
(b) Sweet biscuits Kavaured with anise.
(c) Limes. ‘
(d) Sugar.

Question 6.
Al-Biruni’s Objectives

Al-Biruni described his work as a help to those who want to discuss religious questions with them (the Hindus), and as a repertory of information to those who want to associate with them. ’
(i) When and where was Al-Biruni born?
Answer:
Al-Biruni was born in 973 at Khwarizm which is these days in Uzbekistan.

(ii) Name the book written by him.
Answer:
He wrote “Kitab-ul-Hind”.

(iii) With which objectives did he write?
Answer:
(a) He wanted to help those who were eager
to discuss religious questions with the Hindus.
(b) He accumulated information for those who wanted to associate with the Hindus.

(iv) Name the two books translated by him. In which language were these translated?
Answer:
Al-Biruni translated Patanjali’s work on grammar into Arabic. He also translated the works of Euclid into Sanskrit. Euclid was a Greek mathematician.

Question 7.
On Horse and on Foot

This is how Ibn Battuta described the postal system :

In India, the postal system is of two kinds: The horse-post called ‘ulu’ is run by royal horses stationed at a distance of every four miles. The foot-post has three stations permit. It is called ‘Dawa’, that is, one-third of a mile Now, at every third of a mile there is a well-populated village, outside which are three pavilions in which sit men with girded loins ready to start. Each of them carries a rod, two cubits in length with copper bells at the top.

When the courier starts from the city, he holds the letter in one hand and the rod with its bells on the other; and he runs as fast as he can. When the men in the pavilion hear the ringing of the bell they get ready. As soon as the courier reaches them one of them takes the letter from his hand and runs at the top speed shaking the rod all the while until he reaches the next Dawa. And the same process continues till the letter reaches its destination. This foot-person is quicker than the horse-post, and often it is used to transport the fruits of Khurasan which are much desired in India.
(i)Name two kinds of the postal system.
Answer:
There were two kinds of postal systems – the horse postal system and the postal system on foot.

(ii) Explain how the foot post worked.
Answer:
In the postal service on foot, there were three stages. They were called the Dawa. It was one-third part of a mile. There was a village with a dense population at a distance of every three-mile. There were three centres outside it. The people used to sit in these centres to start their work. Each one of them had a long rod having copper bells at its top. Whenever a messenger started his journey, he held the letter in one land and this rod with copper bells in the other hand. He would run very fast. The people sitting in the camps at once got ready when they heard the sound of the bells. As soon as the messenger reached the camp, one of the people would take the letter and run away at full speed shaking the rod. This process continued till the letter reached its destination.

(iii) Why does Ibn-Battuta think that the postal system in India was efficient?
Answer:
According to Ibn Battuta, the journey from Sindh to Delhi was completed in fifty days. On the other hand, all the information given by the detectives reached the king within five days. Ibn Battuta was quite amazed at their efficiency of the postal system. This system was also used to send information to traders who went too far off places.

(iv) How did the State encourage merchants in the 14th century?
Answer:
In the 14th century, the state took special steps to encourage the traders. For example, al the trade routes had serais and rest houses.

Here we are providing Class 12 History Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 8 Peasants, Zamindars and the State: Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire. Class 12 History Important Questions are the best resource for students which helps in class 12 board exams.

Class 12 History Chapter 8 Important Extra Questions Peasants, Zamindars and the State: Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire

Peasants, Zamindars and the State Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Who was Abul Fazl?
Answer:
Abul Fazl was the court historian of Akbar.

Question 2.
Who wrote Ain-i-Akbari?
Answer:
Abul Fazl wrote Ain-i-Akbari.

Question 3.
Which different names were used for peasants during the Mughal Empire?
Answer:
Raiyat, Kisan, Asami etc.

Question 4.
What are Rabi and Kharif crops?
Answer:
Autumn crops are Kharif crops and Spring crops are Rabi crops.

Question 5.
What was Jins-i-Kamil?
Answer:
Jins-i-Kamil means the perfect crops.

Question 6.
Who headed the Panchayat in the Mughal Empire?
Answer:
The Panchayat was headed by a headman or muqaddam or Mandal.

Question 7.
Give one important function of Panchayats during the Mughal Empire.
Answer:
To ensure that caste boundaries among the various communities living in the village were upheld.

Question 8
What was begar?
Answer:
Unpaid labour was done by the peasants.

Question 9.
Name few artisans lived in the villages.
Answer:
Potters, Blacksmiths, Carpenters, Barbers, Goldsmiths etc.

Question 10.
What work did women do in the fields during the Mughal Empire?
Answer:
Sowing, weeding, threshing and winnowing the harvest.

Question 11.
Who was called Jangli in the Mughal Empire?
Answer:
Forest dwellers were called Jangli in the Mughal Empire. ,

Question 12.
What Oshkosh was expected from the forest people?
Answer:
They were expected to supply elephants to the empire.

Question 13.
What was Pargana?
Answer:
Pargana was an administrative subdivision of a Mughal province.

Question 14.
On the basis of which relations, the rural society of 16th and 17th century was organised?
Answer:
Rural society of 16th and 17th century was made up of small peasants and rich landlords. Both of these were involved in agricultural production and had their right over the share of the produce. As a result, the relationship of cooperation, conflict and competition was created among them. These relationships were the base of organising rural society.

Question 15.
Discuss the four factors that helped in the continuous development of agriculture in India of the Mughal period.
Or
Mention the factors that accounted for the constant expansion of agriculture during the 16th and 17th centuries. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (D))
Answer:
These factors were :

1. Excess of land
2. Availability of workers
3. Dynamism of farmers
4. Development of artificial means of irrigation.

Question 16.
With which community the social existence of peasant was associated during the 16th and 17th centuries? Which were three other constituents of this community?
Answer:
Social existence of peasant, during the 16th and 17th centuries, was associated with the collective village community. Its three other constituents were—the cultivators, the’ Panchayat and the village headman.

Question 17.
Which people were included in the village Panchayat of the Mughal period? With which name was the head of Panchayat known?
Answer:
The village, Panchayat during the Mughal period was an assembly of elders of the village. They were generally important persons of village who had’ hereditary rights over their property.

Question 18.
What does Jins-i-Kamil mean? Why did the Mughal rule encourage it?
Answer:
Literally, Jins-i-Kamil means perfect crops. Such crops included cotton and sugarcane besides oil-seeds and lentils. The Mughal state encouraged -all the peasants to grow and cultivate only those crops which brought in more revenue.

Question 19.
Deserting village was considered as an aggressive method in case of no justice given by Panchayat. Why?
Answer:
In case of conflict between lower caste peasants and state officials or local zamindars, compromises were used. In cases where reconciliation failed, peasants took a more drastic form of resistance and that was deserting the village.

Question 20.
Which type of region was Jungle (forest) from the point of view of Mughal empire?
Answer:
For the Mughal state, the forest or Jungle was a subversive place, a place of refuge or shelter for trouble makers. Once Babur said that “Jungles were those defences behind which the people of the pargana became stubbornly rebellious and; paid no taxes.”

Question 21.
What were the four means by which the people belonging to weaker sections of society could attain the status of zamindars?
Answer:
These means were as follows :

1. By settlements On new lands
2. By transferring of the land ownership
3. By the royal orders
4. By purchasing the land

Question 22.
Name those four large territorial empires in Asia which had managed to consolidate power and resources during the 16th and 17th centuries.
Answer:

1. The Mughal empire in India
2. Ming empire in China
3. Safavid empire of Iran
4. Ottoman empire in Turkey.

Question 23.
Abul Fazl, the writer of Ain-i-Akbari, had a high degree of caution in writing his book. Give two arguments.
Answer:

1. He revised the manuscript five times.
2. He verified the oral testimonies and verified as well as cross-checked them from various facts and sources. He left no stone unturned to check the authenticity of the oral testimonies.

Question 24.
Discuss any two limitations of Ain-i- Akbari.
Answer:
These limitations are as follows :

1. There were errors in total. They might be due to slips of arithmetic or transcription.
2. There was no uniform collection of data from all the provinces.

Question 25.
Why were women considered an important resource in agrarian society? Mention two reasons. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (D))
Answer:

1. Women worked shoulder to shoulder with men in the fields.
2. Men tilled and ploughed the fields and on the other hand, women sowed, weeded, threshed and winnowed the harvest.

Question 26.
Mention two factors for enjoying social and economic privileges by the Zamindars in the Mughal India. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (D))
Answer:

1. Caste was one of the factors that accounted for the elevated status of Zamindars.
2. Zamindars performed certain services (Khidmat) for the State.
   Banjar Land: It was also a type of land which was uncultivated for five years and more.

Question 27.
Mention two main purposes of Ain-i- Akbari. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (O.D.))
Answer:

1. The main purpose of Ain-i-Akbari was to record information about the people and society during the Mughal regime.
2. Another purpose of Ain-i-Akbari was to give detailed accounts of the organisation of the court, administration and army.

Question 28.
Who headed the Panchayats during the seventeenth century? How was he chosen? (C.B.S.E. 2008 (O.D.))
Answer:
The panchayats during the seventeenth century were headed by a head man known as muquaddam or Mandal. Some sources suggest that the headman was chosen through the consensus of the village elders and that this choice had to be ratified by the zamindars.

Question 29.
Mention the major crop of Western India during the 17th century. How did it come to India? (C.B.S.E. 2010 (O.D.))
Answer:
Maize (Makka) was the major crop of Western India during the 17th century. During the 17th century, several new crops from different parts of the world reached the Indian sub-continent via Africa and Spain.

Question 30.
Why were the forest dwellers termed Jungli? Give any two reasons? (C.B.S.E. 2010 (O.D.))
Answer:

1. This word was used for the people whose livelihood came from forest products. Forests were the means of their livelihood.
2. These people moved from one place to another.

Question 31.
What does the third part of the Ain, ‘Mulk Abadi’ deal with? (C.B.S.E. 2010 (O.D.))
Answer:
Mulk Abadi gives detailed information about fiscal aspects and revenue rates of centre and states. Twelve provinces are also mentioned in it. It shows a very detailed and interesting picture of the agrarian society of north India.

Question 32.
How were the village artisans compensated by the villagers for their services? Write about anyone. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (D))
Answer: Village artisans were compensated by the villagers by giving them one part of their products or were given one piece of wasteland kept with them.

Question 33.
How did the Zamindars derive their power during the Mughal period? Mention any two ways. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (D))
Answer:

1. Caste was one factor which accounted for the higher status of Zamindars. Another factor was that they performed certain services for the state.
2. The Zamindars held extensive personal lands termed milkiyat meaning property.

Question 34.
Mention any two steps taken by the Mughals to create the revenue as an administrative apparatus. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (O.D.))
Answer:

1. This apparatus included the office of the diwan who was responsible for supervising the fiscal system of the empire.
2. Revenue officials and record keepers penetrated the agricultural domain and became a decisive agent in shaping agrarian relations.

Question 35.
Mention two factors that brought stability in the silver currency during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. (C.B.S.E.2013 (O.D.))
Answer:
An expanding trade of Asia with other regions brought in huge amounts of silver bullion into Asia to pay for goods procured from India. A large part of that bullion gravitated towards India. As a result, this period saw great stability in the silver currency.

Question 36.
Explain the sources of revenue of village Panchayats during the Mughal rule in India. (C.B.S.E. 2018)
Answer:
During the Mughal rule in India, the Panchayati derived its funds from contributions made by individuals to’ a common financial base, levying fines, agricultural taxes et

Peasants, Zamindars and the State Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Give a brief description of the agrarian life of India during the 16th-17th centuries. Which changes came with the entrance of outside agencies into the agrarian world?
Answer:
Around 85% of people of India, during 16-17th centuries, lived in villages. Both peasants and the rich zamindars were engaged in agricultural production and both were claimants of their share in the produce. That is why it created relationships of cooperation, conflict and competition among them. Rural society was made up of the sum of these agrarian relationships.

The entrance of Outside Agencies:

• At the same time outside agencies entered the rural world. One of the most important was the Mughal Empire which derived most of its income from agricultural production. Revenue accessors, revenue collectors and record keepers wanted to keep complete control over rural society. They wanted to ensure that cultivation must take place so that they could get a share of the state from the produce.
• As many crops were grown for sale, that is why urban trade, money and markets were linked with villages.

Question 2.
What were the two categories of peasants in the 17th century (the Mughal period)? Discuss.
Answer:
According to the Indo-Persian sources of the Mughal period, raiyat or Nazarian were the terms used to denote a peasant. Besides terms like Kisan or Asami were also used. The sources of the 17th century refer to two kinds of farmers. They were Khud-Kashta and Pahi-Kashta. The Khud-Kashta lived in the village where they cultivated their own lands themselves. On the other hand, the Pahi-Kashta were not the residents of the village. They belonged to some other village but cultivated lands in some other village. They performed their work on a contractual basis. There were two reasons for it which are given below :

1. Out of Choice: The people accepted to be Pahi-Kashta when they found the terms of revenue favourable to them.
2. Out of Compulsion: The people became Pahi-Kashta when a famine or economic distress compelled them to find any work anywhere so that they may survive.

Question 3.
How was land an indicator of the prosperity of any peasant? Give examples.
Or
Describe the condition of an average peasant of North India during the seventeenth century. (C.B.S.E. 2012 (O.D.))
Answer:
An average peasant of northern India had not more than a pair of oxen and two ploughs. Most of the peasants even possessed less than that. Those farmers in Gujarat were considered as prosperous who possessed 6 acres of land. On the other hand, the upper limit of land of an average peasant in Bengal was 5 acres. Peasant with 10 acres of land was considered rich. Agriculture was based on the concept of individual ownership. Land of peasants was also sold and bought like the land of other property owners.

Question 4.
Give a brief description of the technology used in agriculture during the Mughal period.
Or
Explain the technology used by the peasants for the cultivation during the Mughal period. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D)) Or
Explain the method of irrigation and technology used during that period. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (D))
Answer:
There was a constant expansion of agriculture during the Mughal Period. It depended mainly on the monsoons. But artificial systems of irrigation were also devised. There are many instances to prove it such as follows :

• The state undertook the digging of new canals (Nahar or Nala).
• The state also undertook the repair of old canals like the Shah-Nahar in Punjab.
• The farmers used those technologies which harnessed animal power.
• There was the use of a wooden plough which was light. It had an iron tip or coulter.
• There was also the use of a drill. It was pulled by a pair of giant oxen used to plant seeds.
• A narrow iron blade with a small wooden handle was also used to hoe and weed.

Question 5.
While explaining seasonal cycles of agriculture during the 16th-17th centuries, clarify that different types of crops were grown.
Answer:
Seasonal Cycles: Agriculture was organised mainly during two seasonal cycles—first was Kharif (autumn) and second was Rabi (spring). Minimum two crops were grown at most of the places except most arid or inhospitable land. At some places, even three crops were grown where rainfall or other means of irrigation were easily available.

Different Types of Crops: There is a mention of word Jins-i-Kamil in historical sources available to us which means perfect crops. Mughal state also used to encourage farmers to grow those crops with which the state could earn more revenue. Cotton and sugarcane were such crops.

Cotton was mainly grown on large pieces of land spread over central India and the Deccan plateau. Bengal was known for its sugar made from sugarcane. Different types of oil seeds (like mustard) and lentils were also included in cash crops. This shows that subsistence and commercial production were closely related with an average peasant’s holding.

Question 6.
Into how many groups were the peasants divided in the Mughal period on account of caste or such other discriminations?
Answer:
During the Mughal period, the cultivators or the peasants were divided into many heterogeneous groups because of inequalities and distinctions based on caste. A majority of those who tilled the land worked as menials or agricultural labourers (majors). A few people belonging to particular castes were given only menial tasks. Thus, they were destined to be poor. Such people comprised a large section of the village population. They had the least resources and were relegated to poverty. They owed their deplorable condition to the caste hierarchy.

Similarly in the Muslim communities, a few people performed menial jobs such as scavenging. They lived outside the boundaries of the village. In other words, there was a direct co-relation between caste, poverty and social status among the lower sections of the society.

Question 7.
Describe any three strengths and two limitations of the Ain-i-Akbari as an important document in the study of the Mughal Period.
Answer:
The Strongest Aspects :

1. Ain-i-Akbari depicts enchanting glimpses of the organisation and structure of the Mughal empire.
2. It incorporates detailed information about the people of India and the Mughal empire.
3. The statistical data about agriculture is quite significant.
4. The information is invaluable to understand the history of the Mughals and the contribution of historians.

Weak Points or Limitations :

• There are many errors in additions.
• The data of all the provinces have not been accumulated uniformly.

Question 8.
How were the village Panchayats organised during the Mughal period? What was the position of head of the Panchayat?
Or
Explain the composition of the village Panchayat. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (D))
Or
How were the Panchayats formed during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries? (C.B.S.E. 2011 (D))
Answer:
Organisation: Village Panchayat was the assembly of elders of the village. Generally, these elders were those important persons of village who had hereditary rights over their property. Panchayat was generally a heterogeneous body in mixed caste village. It was that oligarchy in which all the castes and communities of the village were given representation. The decision of the Panchayat was binding on all the members of the village.

Status of Headman: Headman of Panchayat was known as Muqaddam or Mandal. Some sources suggest that headman was elected by the mutual consent of village elders. This choice had to be approved by the zamindar. Headman could remain in his office until he enjoyed the confidence of village elders or else he could be dismissed by them. His main function was to supervise the preparation of village accounts and was assisted by Patwari of the village.

Question 9.
What was the common financial pool of Panchayat during 16th-17th centuries? What was its importance?
Or
How did village Panchayat use the funds available to it? (C.B.S.E. 2009 (D))
Answer:
Expenditure of Panchayat was run from that financial pool or treasury which was contributed by every individual. It was known as the common financial pool of Panchayat.
Importance:

1. This pool was used for the cost of entertaining revenue officials who tired to visit the village from time to time.
2. This pool was used to pay salary to muqaddam and chowkidar.
3. This pool was also used to meet expenses for the community welfare activities like a flood or any other natural calamity.
4. Often these funds were used for community works like construction of a bund or digging a canal which peasants were unable to afford on their own.

Question 10.
How did the Panchayat ensure that caste-system should not be violated?
Answer:
During the Mughal period, the village Panchayat was an assembly of elders. But in mixed- caste villages, it was usually a heterogeneous body where the decisions of the Panchayats were binding on all the members.

Each Panchayat had a headman who was known as Muqaddam or Mandal. He held his office till he enjoyed the confidence of the village elders. The main function of the Panchayat was to uphold and ensure that all the people lived within caste boundaries. In many parts of eastern India, all the marriages were held in the presence of the Mandal. In other words, the Panchayats played a significant role in the prevention of caste-based offences. It could even expel anyone from the community and impose fines.

Question 11.
What were caste or Jati-Panchayats and what were their functions?
Or
How did Jati-Panchayats yield considerable power in several societies during aMughal period? Clarify. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D))
Answer:
Except for the village Panchayats, there were caste Panchayats in villages. These Panchayats were very powerful in society. Caste Panchayats in Rajasthan used to solve civil disputes among people of different castes :

1. They resolved disputes related to claims of land.
2. They ensured whether marriages are taking place according to caste restrictions or not.
3. They also determined who had ritual precedence in village functions.

Actually, in most of the cases, except criminal cases, the State used to respect the decisions taken by Jati Panchayats.

Question 12.
How Panchayats (during Mughal period) used to solve complaints of weaker sections against superior or upper castes?
Answer:
Archival records of western India, especially Rajasthan and Maharashtra, include few petitions presented to Panchayat complaining about collecting taxes forcefully or the demand of begar, i.e., unpaid labour. These petitions were generally submitted by most weaker sections of rural communities.

These petitions were made collectively by a community or caste group against the morally illegitimate demands of elite groups. One of these demands was excessive- tax. They considered the right of minimum basic means of life as their traditional rights. They wanted that Gram Panchayat should listen to this and ensure that the state must give them justice.

In case of demand of excessive taxes, different classes were advised to do compromise. When reconciliation was not possible, peasants took more drastic forms of resistance like deserting the village. As uncultivated land was easily available and there was a competition over labour resources, it was an effective weapon in the hands of the cultivators.

Question 13.
How external forces were entering into forests during 16th-17th centuries? What was the importance of hunt expeditions in the Mughal political ideology?
Answer:
External forces used to enter the forest in a number of ways. For example, elephants were required by the State for its army. That is why elephants were included in the Oshkosh levied from the forest people. Hunting expeditions were a medium of providing justice by the State, for both poor and rich.

According to court historians, kings used to travel across the extensive territories of its empire. In this way, he was able to personally attend to the grievances of people of different regions. Court artists painted many pictures depicting hunting by the emperors. The painters used to insert a small scene anywhere in the picture which acted as a symbol of a harmonious reign.

Question 14.
How did the expansion of commercial agriculture affect the life of forest dwellers?
Or
Describe the life led by the forest dwellers during the Mughal era in the l6th -17th centuries. (C.B.S.E. 2014 (D))
Answer:
The forest dwellers earned their livelihood from hunting and shifting agriculture. But all these activities were seasonal. For example, the Bhils collected forest produce in the spring, fished in the summer, cultivated land in the monsoon and hunted during autumn and winter. They had to observe perpetual mobility.

However, the spread of commercial agriculture immensely affected the life of forest-dwellers. They exported forest products like honey, gum and wax. It encouraged an overseas export from India in the seventeenth century. They even captured and sold elephants. The Lohan is of Punjab were engaged in overland trade between India and Afghanistan.

The commercial agriculture also brought a considerable change in the social life of the forest- dwellers. Many tribal chiefs had become zamindars. A few of them even had become kings. It was the royal monopoly of the Ahom kings to capture wild animals.

Question 15.
Why were the chiefs of forest dwellers, during the Mughal period, required to build up an army? How did they get military services?
Answer:
Like the ‘big men’ of the village community, tribes also had their chieftains. Social factors led to changes in their lives. Some of the tribal chiefs had become Zamindars and some of them became kings. As a result, they were required to build up an army. So they recruited people of their lineage groups into their army.

They also demanded that their fraternity must provide military service. The tribal military of Sind region had 6 thousand cavalries and 7 thousand infantry. The Ahom kings, in Assam, had their own packs. Packs were those people who were given land if they render military service to the king. Ahom kings also declared their royal monopoly on capturing of wild elephants.

Question 16.
What were the sources of power and high social position of Zamindars in the Mughal India?
Answer:
The Zamindars were the proprietors of land in the Mughal India. They enjoyed many social and economic privileges because of their high status in rural society. They owed their superior position to two factors. First of all, they had an upper caste. Secondly, they performed certain services (Khidmat) for the state.

Ownership of Land: The Zamindars had abundant personal land as their property (Milkiyat). They cultivated their land for private use but they took the help of hired or servile labour in this regard. The Zamindars were also free to sell, bequeath or mortgage their land.

Collection of Land Revenue: The Zamindars were very powerful because they were entitled to collect revenue on behalf of the State. They were financially compensated for this service by the state.

Control over Military Resources: The Zamindars had great power because they exercised control over military resources. Most of the Zamindars had fortresses and also an armed contingent which comprised of cavalry, artillery and infantry.

Question 17.
What was the main feature of the relationship between Zamindars and peasants during a Mughal period? Which two arguments clarify this aspect?
Answer:
There is no denying the fact that the Zamindars were an exploitative class but their relationship with peasants was based on the elements of reciprocity, paternalism and patronage. Following arguments clarify this aspect :

1. The First one is that Bhakti saints openly criticised caste-based and other forms of oppression. But they hardly portray Zamindars as oppressors or exploiters of peasantry class. Generally, revenue officials became victims of their anger.

2. A number of agrarian uprisings took place in the 17th century and peasantry often supported the Zamindars in their struggle against the State.

Question 18.
How was the Feudal class organised during the reign of Akbar?
Answer:
Feudal class during Akbar’s reign belonged mainly to Turks, Uzbeks, Mongols, inhabitants of Persia, Arabia and Afghanistan. Very few Indian Muslims and Hindus were there in it. Around 70% higher officials of Akbar were foreigners. Most of them came over there in search of employment. Few officials were settled over here from one-two generations and they also established their relations with the royal family.

Akbar provided the facility of higher posts to Hindus as well. Even then very few Hindus were there in military and administration. Often powerful Rajputs were appointed on these posts. Only 21 Hindus were there in upper ruling class during Akbar’s reign out of which 17 were Rajputs. Indian Muslims had no important place in the ruling class because it was dependent upon personal traits and maturity of the person. There was hardly any consideration of caste, race or religion while giving the post to any official.

Question 19.
What was Zat ranking in Mansabdari System?
Answer:
Zat was a numerical value which determined the rank and salary in the Mughal Empire. Certain aspects were there in Zat ranking which is given below :

• Nobles with a Zat of 5,000 were ranked higher than those of 1,000.
• There were 29 mansabdars with a rank of 5,000 Zat in the reign of Akbar.
• The number of mansabdars was increased to 79 by Aurangzeb’s reign.
• More number of mansabdars meant more burden of expenditure on State exchequer.

Question 20.
Describe the results of India’s overseas trade under the Mughals. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (O.D.))
Answer:
During the Mughal period, there was a great expansion of land and overseas trade. In response to the many items that were exported from India, Asia had an inflow of a large quantity of silver. A large part of silver reached India which was a creditable thing for India because it had no natural reserve of silver. As a result, the main currency in India was made of silver between the 16th and 18th centuries. There was economic stability in the country as the currency of silver was available in abundance.

Question 21.
Assess the role played by women in the Mughal imperial household. (C.B.S.E. 2008)
Answer:
In the Mughal families, the king had wives, deputy wives, maid-servants and slaves.
1. Except wives, the Mughal families had many women, slaves. They also performed minor jobs besides jobs requiring tact, wisdom and intelligence. There were also slave Khwajasars. They were agents of women who had an interest in trade. They also served as servants and bodyguards both inside and outside the family.

2. After Noor Jahan, Mughal queens and princesses started having control on financial matters. Jahan Ara and Roshan Ara, the daughters of Shah Jahan, got a high salary just like high mansabdars. Besides Jahan Ara got revenue from the city of Surat. This port city was an important centre of trade.

3. As the women had control over important financial resources, the important women of the Mughal family got constructed buildings and gardens. Jahan Ara took part in the architectural projects in the new capital of Shah Jahan at Shahjahanabad (Delhi). It also had a double-story caravan Sarai which had a vast compound and a beautiful garden.

4. The design of Chandini Chowk, the main attraction of Shahjahanabad was prepared by Jahan Ara.

5. We get a glimpse of the family life of the Mughals from Humayunama which was written by Gulbadan. Gulbadan Begum was the daughter of Babur and the sister of Humayun. She could even write serials in Turkish and Arabic.

Question 22.
Explain the role of village artisans in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (O.D.))
Answer:
A large number of sculptors lived in the villages in the 16th and 17th centuries. From the Marathi documents and the British surveys, it is clear that in many villages, the sculptors amounted to 25% of the total population of the village.

Sometimes it was difficult to distinguish between the sculptors and the farmers. It was so because there were many groups which performed both the functions. The farmers also did many other jobs like designing of cloth, pottery and repair and the making of agricultural instruments. Besides potters, iron-smiths, weavers and barbers also rendered their service to the village.

They got either a piece of land or a part of the crop for the service rendered by them. In the 18th century, the zamindars, the iron-smiths, the weavers and the gold-smiths of Bengal used to get a daily allowance for food in respect of their services. It was called the Jajmani System.

Question 23.
Why did Abul Fazl describe the land Revenue as ‘remuneration of sovereignty’? Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (D))
Answer:
Abul Fazl described the land revenue as remuneration of sovereignty because only by giving land revenue to the government, they were actually provided security by the government. They were free to work in their fields according to their wish. They were even free from the fear of any external aggression or internal revolt because then it was the duty of the government to provide them with every type of security.

If any land-related problem would have come in front, then they were allowed to approach the concerned officials. This land revenue was the main source of State’s income with which army and security of the peasants could be maintained.

Question 24.
Describe three factors that accounted for the constant expansion of agriculture during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. (C.B.S.E. 2012 (O.D.))
Answer:
1. Abundance of land, availability of labourers and mobility of peasants were major causes of the continuous expansion of agriculture because* primary objective of agriculture was to feed the people.

2. Like modern days, the monsoon was considered as the backbone of India agriculture during the Mughal period. But the crops for which additional water was required, artificial means of irrigation were developed.

3. State’s help was also available for the development of means of irrigation. For example, State in north India undertook digging of new canals and also repaired a few old canals. Shah canal of Punjab during the reign of Shah Jahan is an example of such repair.

Peasants, Zamindars and the State Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Describe the Land Revenue System of the Mughal empire during the reign of Akbar.
Answer:
Akbar  was a great and able ruler. He laid special emphasis on the land revenue system. For this purpose, he followed the policy initiated by Sher Shah Suri. But this policy had certain defects in it. That is why Akbar began works from the start. Main features of his land revenue system are given below:

1. Following policy initiated by Sher Shah: In the beginning, Akbar followed the policy of land revenue initiated by Sher Shah. During the reign of Sher Shah, the average value was determined by measuring agricultural land. It was determined on the average production of produce. Later on, Akbar felt that it needed a lot of time to fix the market price. It was also a cause of worry for the peasants. Hence, Akbar again started the policy of yearly assumption.

2. Determination of Tax: Akbar followed the following policies for fixing land revenue :
(a) Zabti System: This policy was the creation of Raja Todar Mai. Under this system of revenue, the tax was fixed by measuring the land. This system was implemented in Gujarat, Lahore, Malwa, Allahabad, etc.
(b) Ten Years System: This system was a developed form of Zabti system. According to this, an average of the last ten years of production of crops and their value was taken out. One-third of that average produce was taken as revenue. This revenue could have been taken in the form of cash or produce.
(c) Batai or Galla Bakshi System: In this system, the whole of the total produce was divided in definite proportion among peasant and the State. Honest officials were required for the success of this system.
(d) Nasik or Kanqoot System: Record of agricultural tax was kept in this system.

3. Measurement of Land: During the reign of Akbar, the land was measured with a proper method. With this, state and the peasant came to know about how much peasants will have to pay and how much revenue will be collected for the state.

4. Keeping in mind the fertility of the soil: Fertility of the soil was always kept in mind while determining land revenue. That land was called as ‘Polaj’ which was cultivated every year and that land was called as Tarauti’ which was not cultivated every year. All in all, a tax was fixed on the basis of fertility and the produce.

5. Facilities to Peasants: Special facilities were also given to peasants in case of famine or drought. They were given certain facilities in paying taxes in case of natural calamity. They were also given loans for tools, implements and animals.

Actually, land revenue system of Akbar was prepared while keeping in mind the interests of the people.

Question 2.
While explaining the contribution of women in labour based agrarian society, clarify that what was their position in society? Also, give a proper example.
Or
Discuss the role of women in the agrarian society in Mughal India. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (D))
Or
Examine the status and role played by the women in the agrarian society during the Mughal period. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (O.D.))
Answer:
Men and women both performed certain specific roles in the production process. Women had to work shoulder to shoulder with men in the fields. Men used to till and plough the land whereas women sowed, weeded, threshed and winnowed the harvest. With the development of small rural units and individual agriculture of peasants, labour and resources of the entire household became the basis of production. Naturally, gendered segregation was not possible between home (for women) and the world (for men).

Artisanal works like sifting and kneading clay for pottery, spinning yarn and embroidery were some of the works which depended upon female labour. The more commercialised the product, the greater the demand on women’s labour to produce it. Actually peasant, artisan women not only worked in the fields but also went to houses of their employers and even to markets if required. Females were seen as an important source in agrarian society because they were child-bearers in a society which was dependent on labour.

Status of women in society: The position of the women in society was of mixed nature.
1. There was a high mortality rate among women. That is why married women were less in number. It helped in the emergence of social customs in artisan and peasant society which were different from the customs of elite groups. In many rural communities, the male had to pay bride price instead of dowry to the bride’s family. Remarriage was legally sanctioned for both divorced and widowed women.

2. According to popular traditions, the male was head of the family. In this way, females remained under the control of males and the family. If any female was coming under the scanner of misconduct then she was strictly punished by society.

3. Amongst the landed gentry, women had the right to inherit property. We have found certain examples from Punjab which show that women (including widows) actively participated in the rural land market as sellers of property inherited by them. They were free to sell or mortgage their land.

Question 3.
What aspects of the Mughal period are highlighted by Abul Fazl’s ‘Ain-i-Akbari’?
Answer:
‘Ain-i-Akbari’ was written by Abul Fazl in the year 1598 C.E. It was a part of the project of the writing of history under the orders of Akbar. That is why it is also known as Akbar-Nama. It is a compendium of imperial regulations and a gazette of the Mughal Empire.

This book gives detailed information about various facts of life during the Mughal period :

1. It is a comprehensive analysis of the court, administration and army.
2. It depicts the literary, cultural and religious traditions of the people.
3. It gives a physical layout of the provinces of Akbar’s empire.
4. It enumerates the sources of revenue.
5. It tells us about various customs and practices of the Mughal period.
6. It also gives a short biographical sketch of imperial officials such as mansabdars.

In fact, the real purpose of the book was to facilitate Emperor Akbar in the governance of its empire. It was not a reproduction of official papers but an authentic attempt to present quantitative data at one place. It was an extraordinary document of its times and provides a fascinating peep into the glimpses of the structure and organisation of the Mughal Empire.

Question 4.
Make a critical evaluation of the- significance and limitations of Ain-i-Akbari.
Or
Explain why Ain-i-Akbari remains an extraordinary document of its times even today. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (D))
Or
“In spite of the limitations, the Ain-i-Akbari remained an extraordinary document of its time.” Explain the statement. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (D))
Or
Examine the strengths and weaknesses of Ain-i-Akbari. (C.B.S.E. 2016 (O.D.))
Answer:
Penned by Abul Fazl, Ain-i-Akbari was written to facilitate Akbar in the governance of his empire. It was written in 1598 C.E. Abul Fazl was so cautious about this book that he revised it five times. He tried his best to leave no scope for any transcriptional error. It is an authentic mine of information about the Mughal Empire.

Abul Fazl did not believe oral testimonies. He verified and cross-checked them before their inclusion in the book. He wanted to make his book factual rather than informative. In the quantitative sections, he presented all the numerical data in words so as to minimise the chances of any subsequent trans¬criptional errors. In other words, the Ain is a record of information about the people and society during the Mughal regime.

In spite of the best efforts of Abul Fazl, the book is not without problems or limitations. There are many limitations which can be studied as follows:
1. There are many errors in total. It has been considered that these might be simple arithmetic errors of transcription by Abul Fazl’s assistants. Even then these errors were very simple which hardly reduces the authenticity of data at a wider level.

2. Another limitation of Ain is the skewed nature of the quantitative data. Uniform data was not collected from all provinces. Wide information was collected about the caste of zamindars from many provinces but these information are not available for Bengal and Orissa.

3. Fiscal data from the provinces is quite remarkable but equally important information like prices and wages from these areas are not as well documented.

Conclusion: Ain remained an extraordinary document of its times even after certain limitations. Abul Fazl achieved a major breakthrough in the tradition of medieval chroniclers who wrote mostly about wars, conquests, political machinations and dynastic turmoil. It was one of the greatest achievements of Abul Fazl.

Question 5.
How was agriculture organised around two major seasonal cycles’s during the 16th and 17th centuries? Was it only for subsistence or otherwise? Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2011 (O.D.))
Or
Explain how during 16th and 17th centuries agriculture was organised around two major seasonal cycles by giving examples of different crops. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (D))
Answer:
Seasonal cycles: During the 16th and 17th centuries, agriculture was organised mainly during two seasonal cycles-Kharif (autumn) and Rabi (spring). Minimum two crops were grown at most of the places except most arid or inhospitable land. Even three crops were also grown where rainfall or other means of irrigation were easily available.

Different types of Crops: There is a mention of word Jins-i-Kamil in historical sources available to us which means perfect crops. Mughal state also used to encourage farmers to grow those crops with which the State could earn more revenue. Cotton and sugarcane were such crops.

Cotton was mainly grown on large pieces of land spread over central India and the Deccan Plateau. Bengal was known for its sugar made from sugarcane. Different types of oilseeds (like mustard) and lentils were also included in cash crops. This shows that subsistence and commercial production were closely related with an average peasant’s holding.

Objectives: Major objective of agriculture during the 16th and 17th centuries was only for subsistence. That is why mainly rice, wheat and barley were grown. But this agriculture was not alone for subsistence. Till then, the nature of agriculture was changed a bit.

• Agriculture was mainly organised for two seasons.
• The commercial production and subsistence were closely related to an average present holding.

Peasants, Zamindars and the State Important Extra Questions HOTS

Question 1.
Who were the Khud-Kashta and Pahi- Kashta? Distinguish between the two.
Answer:
There were two kinds of peasants in the seventeenth century. They were Khud-Kashta and Pahi-Kashta.

Khud-Kashta: They lived in the village. They had their own land in the village. They themselves cultivated their lands.

Pahi-Kashta: They were non-resident cultivators. They lived in some other village and cultivated lands elsewhere. They did their work on a contractual basis. People became Pahi-Kashta out of two reasons which are given below:

1. Out of Choice: The people accepted to be Pahi-Kashta when they found the terms of revenue favourable to them.
2. Out of Compulsion: The people became Pahi-Kashta when a famine or economic distress compelled them to find any work to survive.

Question 2.
“A caste group or a community protesting against the demands of the elite class.” What were these demands?
Answer:
Members of a caste group or a community protested against demands of elite class which they considered illegitimate from a moral point of view. One of them was the demand for excessive tax which endangered the peasants’ subsistence especially in times of drought or other disasters.

Question 3.
Explain any two reasons for an exalted position of the zamindars in the Mughal society.
Answer:
The following reasons were responsible for the superior status of zamindars in rural society :

1. They owed their elevated status to their caste.
2. They were the landed proprietors who enjoyed certain social and economic privileges.
3. They performed certain services (Khidmat) for the State.

Question 4.
What was milkiyat?
Answer:
Milkiyat was extensive personal lands held by the zamindars. It was used for cultivation for the private use of the zamindars. It was often cultivated with the help of servile or hired labour. They were free to sell, mortgage these lands at will.

Question 5.
What were ‘Jama’ and ‘Hasil’?
Answer:
The arrangements for the collection of land revenue consisted of two stages: first assessment and then actual collection. The Jama was the amount assessed whereas the Hasil was the amount received or collected.

Question 6.
How ‘Ain’ of Abul Fazl was different from the creations of early historians?
Answer:
Creations of early historians, before Abul Fazl, only mention about wars, conquests, political machinations and dynastic turmoil. They hardly give any information about people and products of the country. If any mention was there, it was from a political point of view.

Question 7.
What is meant by ‘Jangli’ in the context of Mughal period? How forest was seen by the state?
Answer:
Jangli: The word ‘Jangli’ is used by contemporary texts for forest dwellers but it does not mean that they were uncivilised. Actually, during those days, this word was used for the people whose livelihood came from forest products, hunting and shifting cultivation. These occupations were based on seasons. For example, Bhils used to collect forest products during summer, catch fish during summer, do cultivation during monsoon months and used to go for hunting during autumn and winter. Moving from one place to another was one of the important features of tribes living in forests.

Forests in the eyes of the States: As far as for the State, the forest was a subversive place where troublemakers used to take refuge or shelter. Once Babur said about jungles which provided a good defence “behind which the people of the pagan become stubbornly, rebellious and pay no taxes”.

Question 8.
Describe the functions and authority of the Village Panchayats during the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. (C.B.S.E. 2(112 (O.D.))
Answer:
A major function of Panchayat was to ensure that caste boundaries could be upheld by different communities residing in the village. All the marriages in eastern India took place in the presence of Mandal. The major function of village headman was to keep a watch on the conduct of the members of the village community mainly to prevent any offence against their caste. Panchayats had the right to levy fines and expel anyone from the community.

Question 9.
Describe the main sources of agriculture history of the 16th and 17th centuries.
Or
Explain the various sources to know about the rural society during the Mughal period. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (D))
Or
Explain how the chronicle Ain-i-Akbari is the major source to understand the agrarian history of 16th and .7th centuries. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (D))
Answer:
Peasants are the main actors of agrarian history. But peasants did not write about themselves which is why we hardly get information from them about activities of rural society. Our main sources of the agrarian history of 16th and 17th centuries are chronicles, historical texts and documents which were written under the supervision of the Mughal court.

Ain-i-Akbari: Ain-i-Akbari was one of the most important chronicles of its time. It was written by a court historian of Akbar, i.e., Abul Fazl. This chronicle describes very minutely about the arrangements made by the State to ensure cultivation, enable the collection of revenue by the agencies of state and regulate the relations between the State and the Zamindars.

The main objective of Ain or Ain-i-Akbari was to present a vision of Akbar’s empire where a strong ruling class was providing social harmony. According to the author of Ain, any revolt against the State or assertion of autonomous power was predestined to fail. In other words, whatever information we got from Ain about peasants was a point of view of top officials of Mughal court.

Other Sources:
1. Besides Ain, we can also use other sources, which were written at far off places from Mughal kingdom. These include those documents of 17th and 18th centuries found in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan which provide detailed revenue records.
2. Except these, many documents of East India Company are also there which throw light on agrarian relations in eastern India. All these sources record instances of conflicts between the Zamindars, peasants and the State. These sources help us in understanding the peasants’ perception and their expectations of fairness from the State.

Question 10.
Discuss mutual relations between rural artisans and peasants during the 16th and 17th centuries. Also, discuss the importance of rural communities.
Answer:
One of the interesting aspects of the village was the elaborate relationship of exchange between different producers. Early surveys conducted in the village during the early years of British rule and Maratha documents conclude that artisans also lived in great number in villages. Sometimes, around 25% of total household in the villages belonged to artisans.

Sometimes it was very difficult to differentiate between peasants and artisans because they were groups who used to do both kinds of work. Cultivators and their family members were engaged in the production of many things. These included textile printing, dyeing, making and preparing agricultural implements, baking of pottery, etc. It was so because agricultural work was not for the whole of the year and that is why they used to do work of artisans during the free months.

Services and Supply of Service: Potters, carpenters, blacksmiths, barbers and even goldsmiths provided their services to village men. They were compensated by villagers by the number of means. They were either given a share of the produce or a piece of land in the village. This method of compensation was probably decided by the Panchayat. Such lands, in Maharashtra, became the Miras or Watan of the artisans were:

This system also prevailed in another variant in which artisans and individual peasant households entered into a mutually negotiated settlement of remuneration, most of the time goods for services. For example, blacksmiths, carpenters and even goldsmiths were remunerated by the Zamindars of Bengal, for their work by paying them a small daily allowance and diet money. This system was known as the Jajmani system.

Importance of Rural Community: Rural community was of great importance. Some British officials in 19th century saw the Indian villages as ‘a republic’ in which people used to divide their resources and labour with a collective fraternity. But there was no sign of social equality in villages. Individual ownership of land was there. Deep inequalities were there in society on the basis of caste and gender. Few powerful persons decided on matters of the village and exploited the weaker sections. They also had the authority to dispense justice.

More importantly, a cash nexus developed in villages due to trade between towns and villages. In the Mughal regions, revenue was assessed and collected in the form of cash. Artisans producing for the export market were also paid in cash as their wages. In the same way, producers of commercial products, like cotton, indigo, silk, etc., were also paid in cash.

Peasants, Zamindars and the State Important Extra Questions Source-Based

Read the following passages and answer the questions that follow :

Question 1.
Peasants on the Move

This was a feature of agrarian society which struck a keen observer like Babur, the first Mughal emperor, forcefully enough for him to write about it in the Baburnama, his memoirs :

In Hindustan hamlets and villages, towns indeed, are depopulated and set up in a moment! If the people of a large town, one inhabited for years even, flee from it, they do it in such a way that not a sign or trace of them remains in a day and a half. On the other hand, if they fix their eyes on a place to settle, they need not dig watercourses because their crops are all rain-grown, and as the population of Hindustan is unlimited it swarms in. They make a tank or a well; they need not build houses or set up walls …. Khas-grass abounds, wood is unlimited, huts are made, and straightaway there is a village or a town!
(i) what is Baburnama? Which feature of the Mughal period is expressed in this excerpt taken from the Baburnama?
Answer:
Baburnama is a biography of Babur. It is a
memoir about the times of Babur. It expresses a feature of an agrarian society which impressed most a keen observer like Babur.

(ii) What has been said about the Hindustani hamlets and villages in this excerpt?
Answer:
The hamlets and villages in India were depopulated as well as set up in a moment. The people, living in a village or town for years, ran away in such a way that no sign or trace of them is left behind. On the other hand, if they make up their mind to settle, they set up a village or a town in no time.

(iii) How do the people build a village as city in a moment?
Answer:
India has a lot of population. In other words, it was unlimited. So the people swarmed in all the villages and towns. They made a tank or a well in no time. They need not build a house or set up walls. They built huts with wood and khas-grass. So a village or a town came up in a moment.

Question 2.
Trade between the Hill Tribes and the Plains, c. 1595

This is how Abu’l Fazl describes the transactions between the hill tribes and the plains in the Suba of Awadh (part of present-day Uttar Pradesh):

From the northern mountains quantities of goods are carried on the backs of men, of stout ponies and of goats, such as gold, copper, lead, musk, tails of the Kutas cow (the yak), honey, chuk (an acid composed of orange juice and lemon boiled together), pomegranate seed, ginger, long pepper, the majority (a plant producing a red dye) -root, borax, zedoary ( a root resembling turmeric), wax, woollen stuff, woodenware, hawks, falcons, black falcons, merlins (a kind of bird), and other articles. In exchange, they carry back white and coloured cloths, amber, salt, asafoetida, ornaments, glass and earthenwares.
(i) About whom and by whom has this excerpt has been written?
Answer:
This excerpt has been written by Abu’l Fazl. It describes the transactions between the people living in the hills and plains of the Awadh Region which was a part of the present-day Uttar Pradesh.

(ii) Name any four things that were exchanged between the people of plains and hilly areas. How did their transactions take place?
Answer:
The hill-tribes supplied gold, copper, lead, musk, honey, pomegranate seed, ginger, long pepper, wax and tails of the yak. The people living in the plains sent amber, salt, asafoetida, ornaments, white and coloured cloths, glass and earthenwares to the hilly areas.

These things were sent on the backs of men, stout ponies and goats.

(iii) Who were Merlin and Kehruba?
Answer:
Merlin was a kind of hawk or falcon. It was a prey bird. But Aruba was a yellow-brown metal used to make ornaments.

Question 3.
“Moistening the Rose Garden of Fortune”

In this extract Abu’l Fazl gives a vivid account of how and from whom he collected his information :

…to Abu’l Fazl son of Mubarak….this sublime mandate was given. “Write with the pen of sincerity and account of the glorious events and of our domination-conquering victories… Assuredly, I spent much labour and research in collecting the records and narratives of His Majesty’s actions and I was a long time interrogating the servants of the State and the old members of the illustrious family. I examined both prudent, truth-speaking old men and active-minded, right-actioned young ones and reduced their statements to writing.

The Royal commands were issued to the provinces, that those who from old service remembered, with certainty or with adminicle of doubt, the events of the past, should copy out the notes and memoranda and transit them to the court. (Then) a second command shone forth from the holy Presence-chamber; to wit- that the materials which had been collected should be….recited in the royal hearing, and whatever might have to be written down afterwards, should be introduced into the noble volume as a supplement, and that such details as on account of the minuteness of the inquiries and the minutiae of affairs, (which) could not them be brought to an end, should be inserted afterwards at my leisure.

Being relieved by this royal order-the interpreter of the Divine ordinance-from the secret anxiety of my heart, I proceeded to reduce into writing the rough draughts (drafts) which were void of the grace of arrangement and style. I obtained the chronicle of events beginning at the Nineteenth Year of the Divine Era, When the Record Office was established by the enlightened intellect of His Majesty, and from its rich pages, I gathered the account of many events.

Great pains too, were taken to procure the originals or copies of most of the orders which had been issued to the provinces from the Accession up to the present day…I also took much trouble to incorporate many of the reports which ministers and high officials had submitted, about the affairs of the empire and the events of foreign countries. And my labour loving soul was satiated by the apparatus of inquiry and research. I also exerted myself energetically to collect the rough notes and memoranda of sagacious and well-informed men. By these means, I constructed a reservoir for irrigating and moistening the rose garden of fortune (the Akbarnama)”.
(i) From whose memoirs have this extract been taken? Who had authorised him to write the history of the Mughal period?
Answer:
This extract has been taken from the
memoirs of Abu’l Fazl. He was asked by emperor Akbar to write the history of the Mughal period.

(ii) How did the author get authentic information to write his memoirs. List any three methods.
Answer:
(a) He interrogated the servants of the state.
He also talked to old members of the illustrious family.
(b) He examined the statements of all-wise and trustful old men. Besides the talked to active-minded and right actioned young people.
(c) He also heard the views of old service-men.

(iii) Who does the author call the Rose Garden? What does he mean by moistening and irrigating it?
Answer:
The author referred to his Akbar Nama as
the Rose Garden. The moistening and irrigation of this garden mean to make the information interesting as well as authentic.

(iv) What did his early drafts lack?
Answer:
They lacked the grace of arrangement and style.

Question 4.
Irrigating Trees and Fields

This is an excerpt from the Baburnama that described the irrigation devices the emperor observed in northern India :
The greater part of Hindustan country is situated on level land. Many though its towns and cultivated lands are, it nowhere has running waters… For … water is not at all a necessity in cultivating crops and orchards. Autumn crops grow by the downpour of the rains themselves; and strange it is that spring crops grow even when no rains fall. (However) to young trees, water is made to flow by means of buckets or wheels…

In Lahore, Dipalpur (both in present-day Pakistan) and those other parts, people water by means of a wheel. They make two circles of rope long enough to suit the depths of the well, fix strips of wood between them, and on these fasten pitchers. The ropes with the wood and attached pitchers are put over the wheel-well. At one end of the wheel-axle a second wheel is fixed, and close to it another on an upright axle. The last wheel the bullock turns; its teeth catch in the teeth of the second (wheel), and thus the wheel with the pitchers is turned.

A through is set where the water empties from the pitchers and from this the water is conveyed everywhere. In Agra, Chandler, Bayana (all in present-day Uttar Pradesh) and those parts again, people water with a bucket … At the well-edge they set up a fork of wood, having a roller adjusted between the forks, tie a rope to a large bucket, put the rope over a roller and tie its other end to the bullock. One person must drive the bullock, another empty the bucket.
(i) From where has this excerpt been taken? Whom does it talk about?
Answer:
This excerpt has been taken from Baburnama. It tells us about the irrigation devices that Emperor Babur had seen in India.

(ii) Why was the irrigation not understood during the Mughal Period?
Answer:
During the Mughal Period, the importance of irrigation was not recognised. Water was not at all a necessity in the cultivation of crops and orchards. Autumn crops grew by the rains that fell. Similarly, the spring crops grew even when no rains fell. The young trees were watered through buckets or wheels.

(iii) Name two cities where people irrigated by means of a wheel?
Answer:
Lahore and Dipalpur.

(iv) Where was irrigation by buckets prevalent? Wiese help was sought in this task?
Answer:
Irrigation by buckets was popular in Agra, Chandler and Bayana. Some people even took the help of bullocks.

Question 5.
How Silver came to India?

This excerpt from Giovanni Careri’s account (based on Bernier’s account) gives an idea of the enormous amount of wealth that found its way into the Mughal Empire :

That the reader may form some idea of the Wealth of this (Mughal) Empire, he is to observe that all the Gold and Silver, which circulates throughout the World at last Centres here. It is well known that as much of it comes out of America, after running through several Kingdoms of Europe, goes partly into Turkey (Turkey), for several sorts of commodities; and part into Persia, by the way of Smyrna for Silk. Now the Turks not being able to abstain from Coffee, which comes from Hyman (Oman), and Arabia…. nor Persia, Arabia, and the Turks themselves to go without the commodities of India, send vast quantities of Mony (money) to Moka (Mocha) on the Red Sea, near Babel Mandel; to Bassora (Basra) at the bottom of the Persian Gulgh (Gulf) which is afterwards sent over in ships to Indostan (Hindustan).

Besides the Indian, Dutch, English, and Portuguese Ships, that every Year carry the Commodities of Indostan, to Pegu, Tanasserri (parts of Myanmar), Siam (Thailand), Ceylon (Sri Lanka) the Maldive Islands, Mozambique and other places, must of necessity convey much Gold and Silver thither, form those countries. All that the Dutch fetch from the mines in Japan, sooner or later, goes to Indostan; and the goods carry hence into Europe, whether to France, England or Portugal, are all purchased for ready Mony, which remains there.
(i) Who was Bernier?
Answer:
Bernier was a French traveller. He was a doctor, historian and political philosopher. He came to the Mughal Empire in search of opportunities.

(ii) How did the gold and silver which circulated throughout the world reached here during the Mughal Rule?
Answer:
During the Mughal Empire, the gold and silver which circulated throughout the world reached India from America and several countries of Europe. It also came from Turkey and Persia.

(iii) How were the gold and silver brought to India by Dutch, English and Portuguese ships?
Answer:
Many Dutch, English and Portuguese ships carried the Indian commodities to Pegu, Myanmar, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Mozambique and the Maldive Islands. When these ships returned, they brought abundant gold and silver from these countries.

Question 6.
Classification of Lands under Akbar

The following is a listing of criteria of classification excerpted from the Ain:

Emperor Akbar in his profound sagacity classified the lands and fixed a different revenue to be paid by each. The polar island which is annually cultivated for each crop in succession and is never allowed to lie fallow. Parati island left out of cultivation for a time that it may recover its strength. Chachar island that has lain fallow for three or four years. Banjar is land uncultivated for five years and more. Of the first two kinds of land, there are three classes, good, middling, and bad. They add together the produce of each sort, and the third of this represents the medium produce, one-third part of which is exacted as the Royal dues.
(i) Explain briefly the classification of lands by Akbar.
Answer:
Akbar divided the land in four classes :
(a) Polar. This land was annually cultivated. It grew crops in succession. It was never left unploughed and uncultivated.
(b) Parati. It sometimes left uncultivated so that it may recover its strength.
(c) Chachar. It is left uncultivated for three or four years.
(d) Banjar. Banjar is the land uncultivated for five years and more.

(ii) How the revenue was fixed for the first two types of lands?
Answer:
There were three classes of the first two types of land: good, middling and bad. They add together the produce of each sort, and the third of this represents the medium produce. One-third part of which is exacted as the Royal dues.

(iii) Suggest some other way as you feel better. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (D))
Answer:
Another way of revenue was the contract system. Land could be given to a contractor and the definite revenue could be taken from him. The contractor can either cultivate the land himself or could further collect revenue from others by giving them land on rent.

Question 7.
Cash or Kind

The Ain on land revenue collection:

Let him (the amil-guzar) not make it a practice of taking only in cash but also in kind. The latter is effected in several ways. First, kanker: in the Hindi language kan signifies grain, and kut, estimates If any doubt arises, the crops should be cut and estimated in three lots, the good, the middling and the inferior, and the hesitation removed. Often, too, the land taken by appraisement gives a sufficiently accurate return. Secondly, bata, also called Shaolin, the crops are reaped and stacked and divided by agreement in the presence of the parties.

But in this case, several intelligent inspectors are required; otherwise, the evil-minded and false are given to deception. Thirdly khet-bata, when they divide the fields after they are shown. Fourthly, lang-bata, after cutting the grain, they form it in heaps and divide it among themselves and each takes his share home and turns it to profit.
(i) Explain the term Kanker.
Answer:
Kanker is a Hindi word made up of two words ‘Kan’ and ‘Kut’. The meaning of Kan is grain and the meaning of Kut is an estimate. So, the meaning of Kankut is an estimate of grain.

(ii) Explain the system of bata or Shaolin system of land revenue collection.
Answer:
In bata or Shaolin system of land revenue collection, the whole of the total produce was divided in definite proportion among peasant and the state. Honest officials were required for the success of this system.

(iii) Explain the system of lang-bata.
Answer:
In lang-bata system, after cutting the grain, they form it in heaps and divide it among themselves, and each takes his share home and turns it to profit.

(iv) Which system of land revenue collection, do you think, is better and why? (C.B.S.E. 2010 (O.D.))
Answer:
The system of Kankut was better for peasants because this system yields best results, other system were defective to a certain extent.

Here we are providing Class 12 Geography Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 8 Transport and Communication. Geography Class 12 Important Questions are the best resource for students which helps in class 12 board exams.

Class 12 Geography Chapter 8 Important Extra Questions Transport and Communication

Transport and Communication Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
When and where was the first railway line opened ?
Answer:
First public railway line was opened in 1825 between Stockton and Darlington (England).

Question 2.
What is the length of total motorable roads in world ?
Answer:
15 million kms.

Question 3.
Which two towns are connected by Transcanadian highway ?
Answer:
Vancouver (British Columbia) and St. John (New foundland)

Question 4.
Why is West Asia the least developed in rail facilities ? Explain one reason.
Answer:
West Asia is the least developed in rail facilities because of sparsely populated and Vast deserts.

Question 5.
Which highway connects Darwin and Melbourne ? (C.B.S.E. 2018) !
Answer:
The Trans-Continental Stuart Highway.

Question 6.
Which towns are connected by a new highway constructed in China and Tibet ?
Answer:
Chengdu with Lhasa.

Question 7.
Which country has the largest rail network in Africa ?
Answer:
South Africa has largest rail network in Africa continent.

Question 8.
In which countries, commuter trains are popular ?
Answer:
In U.K, U.S.A., Japan and India, millions of passengers daily move to and for in the city by commuter trains.

Question 9.
Which country has the highest rail- density ?
Answer:
Belgium-1 km of railway for every 6.5 sq. km.

Question 10.
Which Tunnel connects London and Paris
Answer:
Channel Tunnel operated by Euro Tunnel group.

Question 11.
Name a trans-continental railway of South America through which pass does it run.
Answer:
Trans Andean Railway connecting Valparaiso (Chile) with Buenos Aires (Argentina). It runs across the Andes through the Uspallatta Pass (3900 m length).

Question 12.
What is Blue Train ?
Answer:
A train from Capetown to Pretoria in South Africa.

Question 13.
From which station runs Orient express to ? (C.B.S.E. 2011)
Answer:
From Paris to Istanbul.

Question 14.
Name the two terminal ports of Suez canal.
Answer:
Port Said (North) and Port Suez (South).

Question 15.
Which country of the world has the highest road density? (C.B.S.E. Outside Delhi 2017)
Answer:
Japan has the highest road density.

Question 16.
Name two terminal ports of Panama canal.
Answer:
Port Colone and Panama.

Question 17.
Name an inland waterway in North America and Germany. (C.B.S.E. 2011, 2014)
Answer:
St. Lawrence River-great lakes and Rhine waterway.

Question 18.
Name the busiest ocean route of the world. (C.B.S.E. 2014)
Answer:
North Altantic ocean route.

Question 19.
Which means of transport is highly suitable for transporting heavy and bulky goods, at a very low cost over long distances between continents ?
Answer:
Waterways.

Question 20.
What term is used for a railway line that runs across a continent and link its two ends ?
Answer:
Trans continental railway.

Question 21.
Name the famous petroleum pipeline which connects the oil wells of the Gulf of Mexico and the North Eastern States in U.S.A.
Ans.
Big Inch pipeline.

Question 22.
Name the terminal station of Australian Trans-continental railway.
Answer:
West—Perth
East—Sydney.

Question 23.
Explain the most important feature of the pipe line constructed from Noharkatiya oil field to Barauni ? (C.B.S.E. 2009)
Answer:
This was the first pipe fine constructed by I.O.L in 1956.

Question 24.
Which one of the following water ways has drastically reduced the oceanic distance between India and Europe. (C.B.S.E. 2009)
(i) Rhine Water way
(ii) The Cape of good hope as a route
(iii) Suez Canal
(iv) Panama Canal.
Answer:
(iii) Suez Canal.
Or
Which Inland waterway of the world is most heavily used. (C.B.S.E. Outside Delhi 2017)
Answer:
The Rine Inland waterway of the world in most heavily used.

Question 25.
Name the terminal stations of the longest railway in the world. (C.B.S.E. 2009,11)
Answer:
Trans-Siberian Railway is the longest railway in the world. It has terminal station of Vladivostock (in the east) and St. Petersburg (in the west).

Question 26.
Which highway connects North America and South America ? (C.B.S.E. 2013
Answer:
Pan American highway.

Question 27.
Define the term Road density. (C.B.S.E. 2014)
Answer:
Road density in the length of roads per 100 sq. km. of area.

Question 28.
“The Volga is one of the most  developed inland waterways in Russia” Justify.
Answer:
Volga is 3840 km long river in Russia and provide 11,200 km navigable able route. It joined Moscow and Ukraine through densely populated area.

Transport and Communication Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Define transport services. Name different methods and goods carried by these.
Answer:
Transport is a service for the carriage of person and goods from one place to another.
It uses humans, animals and vehicles. Such movements take place over land, water and air.
(i) Land transport includes roads and railways.
(ii) Water transport includes shipping and waterways.
(iii) Air transport includes high valued goods.
(iv) Pipelines carry petroleum, natural gas and liquids.

Question 2.
On what factors does the significance of mode of transport depend ?
Answer:
The significance of a mode of transport depends upon :
(i) Type of goods and services to be transported.
(ii) Costs of transport.
(iii) The mode which is available.

Question 3.
Distinguish between metalled and unmetalled roads as regards their utility.
Answer:
Two types of roads are constructed :
(i) Unmetalled roads
(ii) Metalled roads.
Unmetalled roads or surface roads are simple roads. These are not effective and serviceable for all seasons. In rainy season, these become unmotorable.
Metalled roads are laid with bricks and stones. These are solid roads. But during heavy rains and floods these, are damaged. High embankments are constructed to protect these.

Question 4.
What are border roads ? What [ are their functions ?
Answer:
Roads laid along international borders are called border roads. They play an important role in integrating people in remote areas with the major cities. These provide defence needs. These are used to transport goods to border villages and military camps.

Question 5.
State any two advantages of water transport.
Answer:
(i) It does not require route construction.
(ii) The oceans are linked with each other.
(iii) These are negotiable with ships of various sizes.
(iv) The energy cost of water transport is low.
(v) It is the cheapest means of transport.

Question 6.
Describe the Great lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway.
Answer:
The great lakes of North America, Superior, Huron Erie and Ontario are connected by Soo canal and Willand canal to form an Inland waterway. The Estuary of St; Lawrence River along with great lakes forms a commerical waterway.

Question 7.
Analyse the three factors that affect the development of Inland of waterways. Explain the significance of Rhine Inland Waterway. (Delhi 2019)
Answer:
The development of inland waterways depend upon the following factors :
(i) Width and depth of channel
(ii) Continuous flow of water
(iii) Use of technology for dredging.

Significance of Rhine Inland Waterway: The Rhine flows through Germany and the Netherlands. It is navigable for 700 km from Rotterdam, at its north in the Netherland to Basel in Switzerland. It flows through a rich coalfield and the whole basin has become a prosperous manufacturing area. This waterway is the world’s most heavily used.

Question 8.
Write an essay on the economic importance of Trans-Siberian Railway line. (C.B.S.E. 2013)
Answer:
Trans-Siberian Railway line connects the Ear East, the Ural region and the Siberian region with the European Russia. It has helped in the economic development of Siberia. Iron ore and machinery is sent to the Eastern region by this railway.

Foodgrains, wood and coal are sent towards the western part from the Siberian region. Many navigable rivers join this railway line from North and South. Many industrial and commercial towns of Siberia are located on this railway fine. This railway line has helped in the utilisation of resources of Siberia and consequently the density of population has increased in this region.

Question 9.
Name any two inland waterways of Europe. Explain any two factors that influence inland waterways. (C.B.S.E. 2009)
Answer:
The two important inland waterways of Europe are Rhine waterway and Danube waterway. The following factors affect the inland waterways.
(i) Navigability of waterway
(ii) Width and depth of waterway
(iii) Water flow
(iv) Transport technology.

Question 10.
Write six characteristics of Panama canal. (C.B.S.E. 2009, 2017)
Answer:
Panama Canal.
1. It is located in Panama. U.S.A. has control over this canal.
2. It allows two way traffic.
3. It has lock system to allow the ships.
4. Less taxes are charged from the ships passing through this canal.
5. It connects the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.
6. Coal is not available in large quantity on this route.
7. It is important for U.S.A., as the ships do not have to go around Cape Horn.

Question 11.
Name the trans-continental railway of North America constructed in 1886. Write any two characteristics of it. (C.B.S.E. 2009)
Answer:
Trans-canadian railway line was constructed in 1886.

• It runs across Canada from West to East.
• It connects Halifax and Victoria.

Question 12.
Write any six characteristics of the Suez canal. (C.B.S.E. 2009)
Answer:

• Suez canal is the longest navigation canal in the world.
• It was constructed in 1866 by French Engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps.
• Suez canal joins Red Sea with Mediterranean Sea.
• Suez canal has been called the lifeline of the British Empire.
• It is well served with coal and oil.
• This is a sea level canal passing through a level area.

Question 18.
Mention any six advantages of oceanic routes. (C.B.S.E. 2009)
Answer:
Advantages of Ocean Routes :

• It is the cheapest means of transport.
• It is a natural highway and involves no expenditure on its construction.
• It is a global route as all the oceans are interlinked.
• It saves a lot of coal and petroleum as fuel.
• It carries heavy goods. Cost of transportation becomes low.
• Ocean routes run in all directions with no maintenance costs.

Question 14.
Describe the pack animals used in different countries.
Answer:
Pack Animals. The following pack animals are used in different countries :
(i) Horses are used as a draught animal even in the Western countries
(ii) Dogs and reindeer are used in North America, North Europe and Siberia to draw sledges over the snow-covered ground.
(iii)Mules are preferred in the mountainous regions
(iv) Camels are used for caravans in deserts and arid regions
(v) In India, bullocks are used for pulling carts.

Question 15.
Describe the main railways of African continent. How do these connect mining areas ?
Answer:
Africa. This continent, despite being the second largest, has only 40,000 km of railways with South Africa alone accounting for 22,051km due to the concentration of gold, diamond and copper mining activities. The important routes of the continent are

• the Benguela Railway through Angola to Katanga- Zambia Copper Belt
• the Tanzania Railway from the Zambian Copper Belt to Dar-es-Salaam on the coast
• the Railway through Botswana and Zimbabwe linking the landlocked states to the South African network, and
• the Blue Train from Cape Town to Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.

Question 16.
Describe any three major problems of road transport in the world. (CBSE 2018)
Answer:
Major problems of Road transport are:
(i) Air pollution is caused by C02, hydrocarbons and nitrogen emission from the automobiles.
(ii) High rate of accidents are there to use unmetalled or low maintained roads.
Roads are difficult if use during the time of natural calamities and bad weather conditions.
(iii) Road network cannot cope with the demands of traffic as a result congestion occurs.
(iv) Road construction requires heavy investment in construction and regular maintenance.

Question 17.
Describe the Rhine Waterway. “The Rhine waterways is the world’s most heavily used inland waterway.” In the light of this statement, examine the significance of this waterway. (CBSE 2016)
Answer:
The Rhine Water way: The Rhine flows through Germany and the Netherlands. It is navigable for 700 km from Rotterdam, at its mouth in the Netherlands to Basel in Switzerland. Ocean-going vessels can reach up to Cologne. The Ruhr river joins the Rhine from the east. It flows through a rich coalfield and the whole basin has become a prosperous manufacturing area.

Dusseldorf is the Rhine port for this region. Huge tonnage moves along the stretch south of the Ruhr. This waterway is the world’s most heavily used. Each year more than 20,000 ocean-going ships and 2,00,000 inland vessels exchange their cargoes. It connects the industrial areas of Switzerland, Germany, France, Belgium and the Netherlands with the North Atlantic Sea Route.

Question 18.
Why Pipelines are used extensively to transport commodities such as mineral oil and natural gas ? (C.B.S.E. 2011, Delhi 2019)
“Pipelines have become the most convenient and efficient mode of ; transporting liquids and gases over ; long distances in India.” Support the statement with examples. (Delhi 2019)
Answer:
Pipelines are used extensively to transport liquids and gases such as water, mineral oil and natural gas. We are familiar with supply of water and mineral oil through pipes. Even cooking gas or LPG is supplied through pipelines in many parts of the world.

Pipelines can also be used to transport coal mixed with water. In USA, there is a dense network of pipelines for carrying petroleum from the regions of production to the regions of consumption. A famous pipeline of USA, known as the ‘Big Inch’ carries mineral oil from the wells of the Gulf of Mexico to the north-eastern part. About 17 per cent of all freight per tone-kilometre is carried through pipelines in U.S.A.

In Europe, West Asia, Russia and India, pipelines are being used to connect oil wells to refineries and to ports in internal markets. It is also popular for carrying natural gas. One of the longest pipelines, called COMECON, is 4800 km long. It connects oil wells of the Ural and the Volga region to the countries of East Europe.

Question 19.
Describe the importance of Railways.
Answer:
Railway is a major medium of land transport in modem times. Railways are important from economic, social and political point of view.

• These help in the development of minerals of an area.
• Railways carry raw materials to industrial areas and distribute manufactured goods to the market.
• Railways accelerate trade.
• Railways help to maintain national unity.
• Railways provide useful help during any emergency.
• In areas of low population, construction of railways help in the growth of population.
• It is a convenient means for long distance travel.

Question 20.
‘Transport and communications are necessary infrastructure for the economic advancement of a country.’ Explain.
Answer:
Means of transportation are necessary for the exchange of goods to meet the basic needs of man. Transportation means the exchange of persons, goods and information from one place to another. Transport and communications constitute the infrastructure for the growth and development of agriculture, industry and trade of country. These determine the stage of development and culture of the people of a country.

Main features of transport:
(i) The production and exchange of agricultural products depends on means of transportation.

(ii) Developed means of transport are essential for assembling raw materials for different industries. The manufactured goods are sent to markets at a low cost of transportation.

(iii) An efficient system of transport is essential for the growth of trade of country.

(iv) The working population, both employed in the government and personal services, largely depends on the means of transportation. Life in the Metropolitan cities would come to a standstill if the lines of transport and communications were dislocated for a single day.

(v) Regional specialisation such as tea plantations in Assam and steel plants in Damodar valley are not possible without an efficient system of transport.

(vi) Telecommunication networks help in the diffusion of new ideas to far more people.

(vii) Development of the Trans-Siberian railway line has helped in the utilisation of mineral, forest and agricultural resources of Siberia and Central Asia.

(viii) The sparsely populated, forested, mountainous and arid regions lack developed means of transportation.
As a matter of fact, the developed mean of transport are an index of a country’s economic development. Transport and communications serve as ‘lifelines’ of a country’s development. These can be compared to arteries and veins of a nation.

Question 21.
Distinguish between a harbour I and a port.
Answer:
Tertiary and Quaternary Activities Extra Questions Long Answer TypeTertiary and Quaternary Activities Extra Questions HOTS

Harbour	Port
1. A harbour is an area of sea presiding tie up for anchor. 2. It protects the ships front waves and storms. 3. River estuaries and Bays provide natural harbours surh as Mumbai. 4. A harbour provides sufficient room hinterland.	1. A port is a point on coast where ships can safe entrance to ships. 2. Ships load and unload commodities here. 3. Indented coasts provide natural ports. 4. A port is connected with a productive for an chorage of ships.

Question 22.
Distinguish between National highways and State highways.
Answer:

National highways	State highways
1. These are the major roads of the whole country. 2. These connect the different capitals of within a state. 3. These are maintained by the Central Government. 4. Total length of national highways in India is 33,612 km. 5. These have commercial and strategic significance. 6. Sher Shah Suri large (G.T. Road) is a national highway.	1. These are the major roads within a state. 2. These connect the state capitals with the major towns and district headquarters within a state. 3. These are maintained by State Government. 4. The total length of state highways is 3.81,000 kms. 5. These have administrative significance. 6. Amritsar-Chandigarh is a state highway.

Question 23.
Write a comparative account of the Panama Canal and Suez Canal.
Answer:

Panama Canal	Suez Canal
1. It is located in Egypt which has control over this canal. 2. It has one way traffic. 3. It is located on level aroii. 4. Heavy taxes are charged from the ships passing through this canal. 5. It connects Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. 6. Coal and petroleum are available on this route. 7. It is important for U.K. as the ships have not to go around Cape of Good Hope.	1. It is located in Panama. U.S.A. has control over this canal. 2. It allows two way traffic. 3. It has lock system to allow the ships. 4. less taxes are charged from the ships passing through this canal. 5. It connects Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean. 6. Coal is not available in large quantity on this route. 7. It is important for U.S.A. as the ships have not to go around Cape Horn.

Transport and Communication Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Describe the world distribution of roads.
Answer:
The developed countries have a well developed system of metalled roads. These are also called Highways. The industrial countries depend upon roads for raw materials. The countries with developed economies have large and dense road network.

(i) North America: The U.S.A. and Canada in North America have largest road network in the world. The U.S.A. has the highest density of roads in the world and has the largest number of vehicles in the world. The highway density is 0.65 km per km2 and every place is within 20 km distance from a highway. Cities located on the Western and Eastern coasts of North America have been linked by highways.

The Pan American highway connects Alaska in the North with Southern Chile. It is 48,000 kilometres long and is the longest highway in the world. The Trans Canadian Highway links St. John City in New foundland and Vancouver in British Columbia. Alaskan Highway links Edmonton to Anchorage.

(ii) Asia : Land transport has been important in Asia since earliest times. Travellers have been following caravan routes. In China, Beijing is connected with Shanghai Guangzhou, Tsungtso. A highway runs from Chengdu to Lhasa.

(iii) India: In India, most of metalled roads are found in Southern India. Sher Shah Suri Marg or G.T. Road is historically important. It connects Amritsar, Delhi and Kolkata and is known as National Highway No. 1. and No. 2. Its total length is 2500 km. The longest highway in India is N. H. No. 7. which links Varanasi to Kanniyakumari and is 2369 km long. The Golden Quadrilateral or Super express way links New Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai.

(iv) Other Routes: Europe has a dense network of roads in Russia where Moscow is the focus. In Africa, Cairo to Capetown is an important highway. In Australia, Stuart Highway connects Eastern, Southern and Western Australia, (from Darwin to Melbourn).

Question 2.
Describe the location and importance of major railways of the world.
Answer:
Railways : Railways are the most important means of transport on land. The invention of Steam Engine in 1819 and the industrial revolution led to the development of Railways. Railways are very important from the economic, social and strategic point of view.

Importance :

• Railways carry heavy raw materials to industrial areas.
• Railways distribute large volume freight manufactured goods over long distances.
• Railways are vital for national unity, and administration in time of war and peace.
• Railways are the important life-lines of a nation. They bring people close to one another.
• Railways are the cheapest and fastest carriers of passengers for long journeys. Underground railways in big cities carry huge number of people.

Major Railways of the World. The U.S.A. has the longest network of railways in the world.

1. Trans-Siberian Railway line : Trans-Siberian Railway line is the longest railway in the world. It is 11,000 km. long. It is mainly double-tracked. It runs from Vladivostok through Moscow to St. Petersburg. Many towns like Kubyshev, Omsk, Irkutsk, Chita are located on it.

It is the basis of industrial and economic development of Siberia. It has helped settlement in these empty lands. This railway connects wheat lands, coalfields, iron ore region and industrial areas of Siberia. It is highly important from the strategic point of view. Irkutsk is a fur centre on it.

2. Canadian Pacific Railway: Canada has a large east-west extent. It covers mostly snow covered mountains, forests, lakes and high mountains. Canada has two great railway systems. These run from Atlantic coast to Pacific coast connecting Quebec-Montreal industrial region with wheat belt of Prairies and coniferons forests.

The Canadian Pacific Railway and Canadian National Railway run from Vancouver and Seatle on the west coast to Montreal, Halifax and St. John on the Atlantic coast. These railways carry wheat, minerals, coal and iron ore.

3. Railways of the U.SA. : A dense network of railways is found in the eastern part of the U.SA. On the western side, railways are not developed due to hilly nature of the area. These railways join the main centres on the east coast and on the west coast. These are also called Trans-Continental Railway lines. The Union Pacific railway line runs from Chicago to San Francisco. Chicago is the largest rail junction in the world. Ores, grain, paper, chemicals and machinery are exported.

4. Cape-Cairo Railway: This railway line connects Cape Town in South Africa and Cairo (Egypt). This railway runs in a North-South direction. It has to face many obstacles like mountains, high plateaus, equatorial forests and political barriers. This railway has not been completed so far. It runs from Capetown through Kimberley, Lusaka to Bukama (Zaire).

After this, there is water transport (Victoria Lake) or road transport up to Khartoum (Sudan). This railway line continues beyond Khartoum up to Cairo. This railway has helped mining areas and agricultural areas of Africa. South Africa alone has 18000 km railways due to concentration of gold, diamond and copper mines.

5. Trans-Andean Railway: This trans continental railway line, 400 km. long, links Valpraiso (Chile) and Buenos Aires (Argentina). This railway line runs through the Andes mountains at a height of 3485 metres, through Uspallata Pass. It connects the wheat areas of Argentina, coffee areas of Brazil and mining areas of Chile. Pan American railway from Alaska to Chile is the longest railway line in the world.

6. Europe. Europe has one of the most dense rail networks in the world, (about 4,40,000 kms). Most of which is double tracked. Belgium has the highest density of 1 km for every 6.5 km2. London, Paris, Brussels, Milan, Berlin and Warsaw are main rail heads. Channel Tunnel (Euro Tunnel Group) connects London with Paris. Underground railways run in

London, Paris and Moscow Orient express railway runs from Paris to Istanbul. There is a proposal to build a Trans-Asiatic railway linking Istanbul to Bangkok via Iran, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and Myanmar.

7. Australian Trans-continental Railway. It runs west-east across the Southern Australia from Perth to Sydney; passing through Kalgoorlie, Broken hill and Port Augusta. This is called National Railway line.

Question 3.
Write short notes on :
(i) Inland waterways
(ii) Air transport.
Answer:
(i) Inland waterways: Water transportation is of two types :
(a) Inland waterways
(b) Ocean routes.
Ocean routes are used for international trade; Inland waterways are used for internal trade of a country. Navigable rivers, canals and lakes are used as inland waterways. These provide cheap transport for heavy raw materials in industrial countries. Rivers and canals should be deep and flow throughout the year. They should have plenty of water. There should be no silting of beds. The river course should be free from waterfalls.

Inland waterways of the world :
(a) Europe :
A number of countries like France, Germany and Russia use rivers and canals as inland waterways. The Rhine (Germany), Seine, Rhone (France), Volga (Russia), Danube, Elbe and Weser are the important navigable rivers. The Rhine river is the life line of the trade of Germany. The Volga system links five seas. The Rhine-Rhone canal, Volga-Baltic canal, Manchester Liverpool canal are also used as inland waterways.

(b) North America : Great lakes, St. Lawrence sea waterways and the Mississippi river are the important waterways. They serve the industrial region of North America.

(c) Others : The Amazon is the main inland waterway in South America. It is navigable for 1600 kms. upstream. The Yangtze river in China, the Indus in Pakistan, the Ganga and Brahmaputra in India and Irrawaddy in Burma provide inland water transport. The Nile, the Zaire and the Niger rivers in Africa are not useful. These are interrupted by waterfalls.

(ii) Air transport: Since ancient times, men have wanted to fly. The first successful flight by aeroplane was made by the American Wright Brothers in 1903. Many developments during the 20th century have revolutionised air transport.Air transport is the quickest means of transport. It needs no expenditure on the construction of air routes. It can cross physical barriers like mountains, oceans and deserts. But it is a costly means of transport. It is useful for transporting passengers, mails, food supplies and commodities of high value.

Factors affecting air transport:

• Air routes generally follow great circles to fly over the shortest distance.
• Air transport needs clear weather. Low clouds, fog, dust storms and snow are big handicaps.
• The construction of aerodromes needs level land.
• Air transport requires huge capital.
• The air transport needs adequate equipment and machinery.

World Air-Routes : Major air-routes of the world connect economically developed countries. The U.S.A., Russia and Western Europe have a dense network of air routes.

• North Atlantic Air Route (between N. America and Europe).
• South Atlantic Air Route (between S. America and Europe).
• Air Routes between Europe and Russia.
• Air Routes between Middle East and Europe.
• Europe-Australia Air Route.
• Europe-Asia (Far East) Air Route.

Nodal points. U.S.A. alone accounts for the 60% of this airways of the world. New York, London, Paris, Amestardam, Frankfurt, Rome, Moscow, Karachi, New Delhi, Mumbai, Bangkok, Singapore, Tokyo, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Chicago are nodal points where air routes coverage or radiate.

Question 4.
Describe the chief ocean routes of the world. Discuss their characteristics, trade and importance.
Answer:
Ocean routes are the most important and the cheapest means of transportation. It is the mainstay of international trade. When the ships regularly follow a well defined track, it is called a route.

Importance of Ocean Routes :

• It is the cheapest means of transport.
• It is a natural highway and involves no expenditure on its construction.
• It is a global route as all the oceans are inter-linked.
• It saves a lot of coal and petroleum as fuel.
• It carries heavy goods. Cost of transportation becomes low.

Factors influencing the ocean routes. Ocean routes depend on the following factors:

• Ocean routes follow great circles (the shortest distance between two points on the globe).
• Ships pass through the points where cargo is available.
• Ships avoid areas of icebergs, fog and storms.
• Ships stop at ‘ports of call’ where fuel is available.
• Ocean routes pass through densely populated and economically developed areas.

Major Ocean Routes of the World. The major ocean routes are located in mid-latitude countries.

1. North Atlantic Route. This route lies between 40° – 50° N latitudes and connects Europe and North America. It is the busiest route of the world. About 25% ships of the world follow this route.

About half the major ports of the world are located on this route. This route connects the two continents highly developed in manufacturing, transportation and trade. This is called Big-Trunk Route.

This route follows the Great Circle. This route is well served with Coal and Petroleum. On both sides of the route, there are many deep, protected harbours and modern shipyards. The route connects two regions of dense population with a high standard of living of the people. The route suffers from the handicaps of fog and icebergs near Newfoundland.

Ports and Trade. The important ports of the European side of the route are London, Liverpool, Glasgow, Oslo, Hamburg, Rotterdam and Lisbon. On the American side of the route, the major ports are Quebec, Montreal, Halifax, Boston, Philadelphia and New York. This route handles about one fourth of the world’s trade.

The East-bound traffic consists of wheat, cotton, wood-pulp, petroleum, dairy products and fruits. The West-bound traffic consists of medicines, olives, chalk, pyrites and manufactured goods.

2. The Suez Route. This route runs through the heart of the old world. It serves most of the world-land area and most of the world’s population. It is known as Grand Trunk Route as regards its length. It is a vital link between the Northern and Southern continents.

This route is well served with coal and petroleum. This route has resulted in the saving of distance of 8000 kms. between Asia and Europe. The Suez route has been called the Life-Line of the British Empire.

Ports and Trade. This route extends from Western Europe through Mediterranean Sea upto Suez Canal. After crossing the Suez Canal it runs through Red Sea and Indian Ocean. This route follows three directions:

• Towards South-Africa.
• Towards Australia and New Zealand.
• To India and the Far-East.

This route is a short-cut to Afro-Asian market. On the western side, European Ports serve this route. On the Eastern side, the important ports are Aden, Karachi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Colombo, Rangoon, Singapore, Hongkong, Shanghai, Yokohama, Melbourne and Wellington. The

East-bound traffic consists of manufactured goods, machinery, chemicals, medicines. The West- bound traffic consists of oil, dates from the Persian Gulf; jute, tea, sugar from India; tin and rubber from Malaysia ; sugar, tea, spices from Indonesia; silk and cotton textiles from China and Japan, dairy products from Australia.

3. The Panama Route. This route connects the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean. The Panama canal was opened in 1914. The Panama Canal is the Gateway to the Pacific. This route has increased the trade between the West coasts of America and Europe. It has eliminated the long voyage round the stormy Cape Horn. It has reduced the distance between East and West of North America by 10,000 kms.

Ports and Trade. The important ports on the western side are Auckland, Valparaiso, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Vancouver and Prince Rupert. On the eastern coast, the important ports are Kingston, Havana, Rio-de- Janeiro, Panama and New Orleans. There is a great exchange of minerals and raw materials between these regions. Iron-ore, nitrates, copper, cotton, coffee move along this route in exchange for manufactured goods.

4. Cape of Good-Hope Route. The route was discovered in 1498 by Vasco-de-Gama. It became an important route due to the closure of Suez canal. It connects Europe with South-Africa, Australia and New Zealand. This route follows a great circle to clear the shoulder of Africa. This route is cheaper than Suez route. Cape of Good-Hope? is a focus of many trade routes from Europe to

• South Africa
• Persian-Gulf
• Far- East
• Australia and New Zealand.

Ports and Trade. On the western side, it serves all the important ports of Europe. On the eastern side, Capetown, Durban, Dar-es-Salaam, Adelaide, Sydney and Jakarta are the important ports. The East-bound traffic consists of manufactured goods, machinery, automobiles and medicines. Large quantities of wheat, hides, rubber, sugar, copper, gold, wool and coffee are exported to Europe.

5. Trans-Pacific Routes. This route connects the western coas t of North America with Asia. This is an unimportant route. Few ships move across the vast ocean. It forms a Great circle route. Several routes meet at Honolulu. It is called the cross roads of the Pacific.

Ports and Trade. The important ports on the American side are Vancouver, Prince Rupert, San Francisco and Los Angeles. On the eastern side, Yokohama, Hong Kong, Manila, Sydney and Auckland are important ports. Wood-pulp, wheat, paper and machinery is exported towards Asian side. Sugar, jute, tea, silk, toys, rubber, teak are sent to North America.

6. The South Atlantic Route. This route connects West Indies and South America with Europe. It links the agricultural nations of Brazil and Argentina with the industrial regions of Europe and U.S.A. Cape San Roque (Brazil) leads this route into two branches, one to Europe and the other-to North America.

Ports and Trade. On the northern side, it serves the ports of Europe and North America. On the southern side, the important ports are Kingston, Bahia, Santos, Buenos Aires, Monte Video and Rio-de-Janeiro. Wheat, coffee, sugar and wool are sent to Europe in exchange of coal, machinery and manufactured goods.

Question  5.
Describe the geographical, economic and strategic importance of Suez Canal. (C.B.S.E. Outside 2017) (CBSE 2018-19)
Answer:
Suez canal
1. Location. The Suez Canal is the longest navigation canal in the world. It has been cut across the isthmus of Suez in Egypt.

2. History. The construction of Suez canal was begun by French Engineer, Ferdinand-de-Lesseps in 1859. It was opened on 17th November, 1869. It took ten years to complete this canal at a cost of Pound 180 lakh. The canal was nationalised on 26 July, 1956 by Col. Abdul Nasser to help-the construction of Aswan dam. Due to war, the canal remained closed till 1975 due to Arab-Israel conflict.

3. Seas and Ports. Suez canal joins the Red Sea with the Mediterranean. On the Mediterranean Sea, Port Said is the major Port while Port Suez stands on the Red Sea side. This canal is 162 kms. long, has a depth of 13 metres and a width of 60 to 80 metres. This is a sea-level canal passing through a level area. It has 3 salt lakes :

• Little Bitter Lake
• Great Bitter Lake
• Timshah Lake.

It takes about 12 hours to cross this canal. The Suez Canal can handle about 10 ships a day. It is difficult for modern ships to pass through this canal.

4. Importance. This route runs through the densely populated areas. It is well served with coal and oil. Many deep, protected harbours are found on this route. It is located at the cross-roads of the three continents. It has been called the life-line of the British Empire. Ships avoid long route via Cape of Good-Hope. The distance between Europe and Asia has been shortened by about 8000 kms. This manmade navigation canal serves as gate-way to India Ocean.

5. Drawbacks. It is a narrow canal. It is not very deep. Modern ships and oil tankers cannot pass through it. It takes longer time to cross the canal due to oneway traffic. The canal taxes are very high. Therefore, it is a costly route. It needs regular dredging due to the sand falling into the canal.

The closure of Suez canal had adverse effect on the economy of many countries. It caused an increase in the prices of oil and raw materials. The canal had been re-opened on June 5, 1975. It has definitely helped India to increase her exports. Suez Canal is being deepened and widened at a great cost, but it will not be the same old romantic Suez Canal.

Question 6.
Describe the geographical, economic and political importance of Panama Canal. (Imp)
Answer:
Panama canal
1. Location. Panama Canal has been cut across Panama isthmus. The canal lies in Panama situated in Central America.

2. History. After the opening of Suez Canal, Ferdinand-de-Lesseps started the construction of Panama Canal in 1882. The project faced many handicaps and was abandoned. In 1914, U.S.A. completed the construction of Panama Canal. This canal is constructed, owned and controlled by U.S.A. The construction of Panama Canal was a great feat of engineering.

3. Ports and seas. The canal connects two great oceans—The Pacific and the Atlantic. It is also called the Gateway to the Pacific. The port of Colon is situated on the Atlantic while the port of Panama is situated on the Pacific. The canal is 81.6 km long, about 13 metres deep and the width varies from 90 to 305 metres. It takes ships about 8 hours to cross this canal.

The water level in the canal is 26 metres above sea level. So it is necessary to construct locks in the canal to raise and lower ships. The Panama Canal passes through:

(i) Two bays.
(ii) One artificial lake—Gatun lake
(iii) One natural lake
(iv) One cut through Culbera Ridge.
(v) Three lock systems

• Gatun locks
•  Pedro Miquel lock
• Mira Flores lock.

4. Importance
(i) Panama Canal has changed the element of distance in geography of transportation. The Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean are nearer to each other now by 1000 km.
(ii) It has eliminated the long voyage around the stormy Cape Horn.
(iii) It has reduced the distance between the eastern and western coasts of U.S.A.
(iv) Australia, New Zealand and South America are now nearer to Europe via Panama Canal.
(v) It is of great strategic importance to U.S.A. as she can keep only one navy.

5. Drawbacks:
(i) The system of locks is inconvenient, costly and delays the ships.
(ii) The vast Pacific Ocean has few ports and islands.
(iii) Large ships cannot pass through this canal.
(iv) The Panama Canal passes through thinly populated and under-developed countries.

Future. U.S.A is the biggest user of this canal. Almost 50 ships pass through this canal daily. The opening of this canal has helped the development of West India and Western coast of South America.

Question 7.
“The Suez and Panama canals are two vital man-made navigation canals which are gateway of commerce for both the Eastern and Western World!” In the lights of this statement explain the economic significance of these two canals. (C.B.S.E. 2010)
Answer:

Suez canal
1. Location. The Suez Canal is the longest navigation canal in the world. It has been cut across the isthmus of Suez in Egypt.

2. History. The construction of Suez canal was begun by French Engineer, Ferdinand-de-Lesseps in 1859. It was opened on 17th November, 1869. It took ten years to complete this canal at a cost of Pound 180 lakh. The canal was nationalised on 26 July, 1956 by Col. Abdul Nasser to help-the construction of Aswan dam. Due to war, the canal remained closed till 1975 due to Arab-Israel conflict.

3. Seas and Ports. Suez canal joins the Red Sea with the Mediterranean. On the Mediterranean Sea, Port Said is the major Port while Port Suez stands on the Red Sea side. This canal is 162 kms. long, has a depth of 13 metres and a width of 60 to 80 metres. This is a sea-level canal passing through a level area. It has 3 salt lakes :

• Little Bitter Lake
• Great Bitter Lake
• Timshah Lake.

It takes about 12 hours to cross this canal. The Suez Canal can handle about 10 ships a day. It is difficult for modern ships to pass through this canal.

4. Importance. This route runs through the densely populated areas. It is well served with coal and oil. Many deep, protected harbours are found on this route. It is located at the cross-roads of the three continents. It has been called the life-line of the British Empire. Ships avoid long route via Cape of Good-Hope. The distance between Europe and Asia has been shortened by about 8000 kms. This manmade navigation canal serves as gate-way to India Ocean.

5. Drawbacks. It is a narrow canal. It is not very deep. Modern ships and oil tankers cannot pass through it. It takes longer time to cross the canal due to oneway traffic. The canal taxes are very high. Therefore, it is a costly route. It needs regular dredging due to the sand falling into the canal.

The closure of Suez canal had adverse effect on the economy of many countries. It caused an increase in the prices of oil and raw materials. The canal had been re-opened on June 5, 1975. It has definitely helped India to increase her exports. Suez Canal is being deepened and widened at a great cost, but it will not be the same old romantic Suez Canal.

Panama canal
1. Location. Panama Canal has been cut across Panama isthmus. The canal lies in Panama situated in Central America.

2. History. After the opening of Suez Canal, Ferdinand-de-Lesseps started the construction of Panama Canal in 1882. The project faced many handicaps and was abandoned. In 1914, U.S.A. completed the construction of Panama Canal. This canal is constructed, owned and controlled by U.S.A. The construction of Panama Canal was a great feat of engineering.

3. Ports and seas. The canal connects two great oceans—The Pacific and the Atlantic. It is also called the Gateway to the Pacific. The port of Colon is situated on the Atlantic while the port of Panama is situated on the Pacific. The canal is 81.6 km long, about 13 metres deep and the width varies from 90 to 305 metres. It takes ships about 8 hours to cross this canal.

The water level in the canal is 26 metres above sea level. So it is necessary to construct locks in the canal to raise and lower ships. The Panama Canal passes through:

(i) Two bays.
(ii) One artificial lake—Gatun lake
(iii) One natural lake
(iv) One cut through Culbera Ridge.
(v) Three lock systems

• Gatun locks
•  Pedro Miquel lock
• Mira Flores lock.

4. Importance
(i) Panama Canal has changed the element of distance in geography of transportation. The Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean are nearer to each other now by 1000 km.
(ii) It has eliminated the long voyage around the stormy Cape Horn.
(iii) It has reduced the distance between the eastern and western coasts of U.S.A.
(iv) Australia, New Zealand and South America are now nearer to Europe via Panama Canal.
(v) It is of great strategic importance to U.S.A. as she can keep only one navy.

5. Drawbacks:
(i) The system of locks is inconvenient, costly and delays the ships.
(ii) The vast Pacific Ocean has few ports and islands.
(iii) Large ships cannot pass through this canal.
(iv) The Panama Canal passes through thinly populated and under-developed countries.

Future. U.S.A is the biggest user of this canal. Almost 50 ships pass through this canal daily. The opening of this canal has helped the development of West India and Western coast of South America.

Transport and Communication Important Extra Questions HOTS

Question 1.
Why is river Rhine the world’s most heavily used waterway? Explain any three reasons. (C.B.S.E. 2013)
Answer:
The river Rhine flows through Germany and Netherlands. It is the most used inland waterway.

• It flows through a rich coalfield (Ruhr) and the whole basin is a prosperous manufacturing area.
• Huge tonnage vessels moved along the stretch, south of Ruhr each year more than 20,000 ocean going ships and 2,00,000 inland vessels exchange their cargo.
• It connects the industrial areas of Switzerland, Germany, France, Belgium and the Netherlands with the North Atlantic sea route.

Question 2.
Study the map given below carefully and answer the questions that follow :
(i) Identify and name the canal shown in the map.
Answer:
Panama canal

(ii) Explain any two features of this canal.
Answer:

• The canal connects two great oceans-the Pacific and the Atlantic. It is also called the gateway to the Pacific.
• Panama canal has been cut across Panama Isthmus.
• It has reduced the distance between eastern and western coasts of U.S.A.

Here we are providing Class 12 Geography Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 1 Human Geography: Nature and Scope. Geography Class 12 Important Questions are the best resource for students which helps in class 12 board exams.

Class 12 Geography Chapter 1 Important Extra Questions Human Geography: Nature and Scope

Human Geography: Nature and Scope Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Name two major components of earth.
Answer:
Physical environment and life forms.

Question 2.
What is the core concern of Geography as a discipline ?
Answer:
To understand the earth as home of man.

Question 3.
Who first used the term Geography ?
Answer:
Eratosthenes a Greek geographer who lived in Alexandria during 276-192 B.C.E.

Question 4.
What does world idiographic mean ?
Answer:
Descriptive.

Question 5.
Name the elements of physical environment.
Answer:
Landforms, soils, climate, water, natural vegetation, flora and fauna.

Question 6.
Name the elements of human (cultural) environment.
Answer:
Houses, villages, cities, rail-road net works, industries, farms, ports.

Question 7.
Why is physical environment called ‘Mother Nature’ ?
Answer:
In primitive societies, nature is a powerful force, worshipped, revered and conserved. People depend on nature for resources which sustain them.

Question 8.
Analyse the ‘behavioural’ school of thought. (Outside Delhi 2019)
Answer:
This is an approach to human geography that examines human’s behaviour by using a disaggregate approach. This is a branch of human science.

Human Geography: Nature and Scope Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What is Geography ? State three characteristics of study of Geography.
Answer:
(1) Geography is an areal or spatial science.
(2) The word geography is derived from two Greek words (Ge = earth and graphe ~ description).
(3) Hence Geography is the description of earth’s surface.

Question 2.
Why is Geography often called the ‘mother of all Sciences’ ? Give three reasons.
Answer:
An inter-disciplinary subject. Geography is truly global in nature. It studies all the natural and human phenomena. So it has to gather knowledge from all other subjects. So it is called ‘mother of all Sciences’.

Question 3.
Why is Geography known as ‘body of knowledge’ ? Give three aspects.
Answer:
(i) In ancient times, the aim of geography was to collect all general information concerning the earth. This knowledge was based on travels by traders, travellers, settlers and conquerors.

(ii) Geography included the knowledge about the shape and size of earth, latitude, longitude, solar system etc.

(iii) The subject of Geography gathered much knowledge from other subjects. Therefore, it is known as body of knowledge.

Question 4.
‘Geography is a physical science as well as a social science.’ Discuss.
Answer:
Geography is a science of synthesis. It represents the total picture of an area by studying the physical and human aspects of an area. Physics, chemistry, botany etc. (Physical sciences) are used to study the natural environment. The social science helps to study the human activities such as agriculture, settlements etc. Therefore, Geography like the physical sciences and social sciences is included in both the groups.

Question 5.
Explain the aim of Human Geography. Explain its three aspects.
Answer:
(i) Human Geography aims at the study of human and natural resources of a region so that these resources can be used for the progress and welfare of the people.
(ii) It studies the effects of environment on human groups.
(iii) It studies the modifications made by man in Environment. In this way, the main aim of Human Geography is to study the interactive relationship between man, environment and economic activities.

Question 6.
“Man occupies the central position in Human Geography.” Discuss.
Answer:
The set of surroundings in which man lives and works is called environment.
(i) Man is an active geographical agent.
(ii) Man uses soil resources to produce food for himself. He also gets food from fishing, cattle rearing, sheep rearing.
(iii) He develops water power from waterfalls along rivers. Coal is used to generate power for industries. So man occupies the central position. All the physical and cultural activities revolve around man.

Question 7.
‘Man is a slave of nature.’ I Discuss with two examples.
Answer:
There is a close relationship between man and nature. Physical elements of nature such as land, climate, soil, minerals, water and vegetation influence mode of life of human groups, economic activities and social life of people. Nature determines the work and life of man. This concept is called Determinism.
(i) According to Ratzal, ‘Man is the product of environment’ or it can be said, ‘Man is a slave of nature. ’
Man and nature work together. So it has been rightly said, Man in nature.’
(ii) According to Vidal de la Blache, ‘Nature provides the stage and it is for man to act on it. ’

Question 8.
What do you mean by Neo-.determinism ? (C.B.S.E 2011)
Answer:
Neo-determinism. Although the nature has offered humans a lot of scope for development, it does also set the ultimate limits, crossing of which would mean a point of no return. Hence, the possibilistic approach invited criticism from many of the contemporary thinkers. Griffith Taylor, while criticizing the possibilism, put forward the concept of neo-determinism.

He stressed that a geographer’s role is essentially that of an advisor and not to interpret the nature’s plans. It is a Madhyam Marg between determinism and possibilism. It is called stop and go determinism. It means that possibilities can be created within the limits which do not damage the environment.

Question 9.
How has the free run developed economies damaged the environment ? Give five examples. .
Answer:
Possibilism means that there is a condition of absolute freedom. It means human beings can conquer nature freely for their development purposes. Thus there is a free run without accidents. But the free run developed economies has damaged the environment in the following ways :—

• Green house effect
• Ozone layer depletion
• Global warming
• Receding glaciers
• Degrading lands.

Question 10.
Which are the three core points of the definition of human geography given by Ellen C. Semple ?
Answer:
According to Ellen C. Semple, “Human geography is the study of the changing relationship between unresting man and the unstable earth.”
Three core points :
The three core points in this definition are :

• Inter-relationship of human societies and earth surfaces.
• Human-environment relationship is dynamic.
• Human progress is adopted to nature.

Question 11.
Explain the concept of environmental determinism with suitable examples. (C.B.S.E. 2009, Delhi 2019)
Answer:
Determinism. It refers to the point of view supporting environmental control on human action. Accordingly, history, culture, life-style and stage of development of a social group, society or nation are largely governed by the physical factors, (like terrain, climate, fauna and flora) of environment. The determinists generally consider human as a passive agent.

Different views :
(i) Thus attempt was made by the Greek and Roman scholars including Hippocrates, Aristotle, Herodotus and Starabo.

(ii) The works of scholars, such as Al-Masudi, Al-Idrisi and Ibn-Khaldun, Kant, Humbolt, Ritter and Ratzel continued upto the early 20th century

(iii) This concept grew widespread particularly in the United States from the writing of E.C. Semple and Ellsworth Huntington.

Question 12.
Explain the concept of possibilism with suitable examples. (C.B.S.E. 2009, 2013, Delhi 2019) I
Answer:
Possibilism. The idea that human beings are controlled by nature was rejected and other geographers who stressed the fact that human beings were free to choose. When humans are seen as an active force rather than a passive being, the approach is that of possibilism.

Different Views :
(i) Lucian Febvre, the first to use the world possibilism, wrote that “There are no necessities, but everywhere possibilities; and man as master of these possibilities is the judge of their use.”

(ii) It was Vidal de la Blache who advocated and developed systematically the school of possibilism. He opined that the life-styles of people are the product of physical, historical and social influences. This concept became the basic philosophy of the school of possibilism.

(iii) It was realized that the cultural context and technological advancement of humans determined how they will use the environment.

Question 13.
What do you mean by Dualism in Geography ? Give three examples. What is the meaning of words nomothetic and ideographic ?
Answer:

• There is a wide-range debate whether geography should be studied with a regional or systematic approach. This is called dualism. Nomothetic means law making while ideographic means descriptive.
• Whether geographical phenomena be interpreted theoretically or through historic institutional approach.
• There exists dichotomy between physical and human geography.

Question 14.
“Physical environment has been greatly modified by human beings, it has also, in turn impacted human lives.” Explain the statement. (Delhi 2019)
Answer:
Physical environment consists of the physical or material phenomena such as climate, surface configuration and drainage and natural resources such as soils/minerals/water and forests. Physical environment has been greatly modified by humans and has also in trun impacted human fives.

Humans modify the environment ot suit their different needs to meet fife’s necessities. In the process, the bring technology and knowledge to bear on physical environment. Because of this alteretions of humans have brought economic prosperity to some areas and at some other areas created environmental crisis.

Question 15.
Who gave the term stop and go determinism.
Answer:
Griffith Taylor gave the term stop and go determinism which reflects a middle path between ideas of environmental determinism and possibilism.

Question 16.
Define Human Geography according to Paul Vidal de la Blache. Which new idea is contained in it ?
Answer:
According to Paul de la Blache “Human Geography is a conception resulting from a more synthetic knowledge of the physical laws governing our earth and of the relations between the living things which inhibit it.” This definition offers a new conception. It studies the relationship between earth and human beings. Elements of Physical environment and elements of cultural environment interact with each other.

Question 17.
Distinguish between Physical environment and Cultural environment. Give three points.
Answer:

Physical Environment	Cultural Environment
1. Physical environment includes Physical Conditions. 2. It includes soils, minerals, water and forests. 3. It is studied by Physical Sciences.	1. Cultural environment includes man-made features. 2. It includes population, human settlements, agriculture etc. 3. It is studied by Social Sciences.

Question 18.
Distinguish between Determinism and Possibilism.
Answer:

Determinism	Possibilism
1. It means that environment         determines human activities. 2.According to this nature is all powerful and man is the child of environment. 3. Ratzal and Ellsworth Huntington  has supported this school of thought.	1. It means that man can modify environment to his needs. 2. According to this, it is possible to conquer nature. 3. Vidal de la Blache and L. Febvre supported this school of thought.

Question 19.
Distinguish between the Regional Geography and Systematic Geography.
Answer:

Regional Geography	Systematic Geography.
1. It is an integrated study of geographical features of an area. 2.  Each geographical factor of a region is examined separately. 3.  Each region is studied in its total setting. 4. This study implies the demarcation of regions.	1.  It is the detailed study of a single geographical factor of an area. 2.  The climate of the world is studied an a whole. 3.  It studies the geographical facts in an individual manner. 4. The regions are recognised over the whole globe.

Question 20.
Distinguish between Positivism and Humanism.
Answer:

Positivism	Humanism.
1. It is a new approach used in mid-fifties. 2. It leads to Behavioral approach. 3. It includes human powers.	1. It is a new approach used in mid ninties. 2. It leads to welfare approach. 3. It includes the human agency, consciousness and creativity.

Human Geography: Nature and Scope Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
What do you mean by Human Geography ? Describe the different definitions given by different Geographers.
Answer:
Man-An active agent. Man is a geographical agent on this earth. Man is an active part of environment. Man utilises the natural resources to meet his basic needs of food, shelter and clothing. Man is not a slave of nature, but modifies it to meet its survival. Sometimes man adjusts himself according to the natural environment.

Due to variation in environment, variations are found in life style of people in different regions. Food, clothing, shelter, customs, traditions, socio-economic conditions, religion, faith, skill, efficiency directly or indirectly influence environment.

Definition of Human Geography : Many cultural features result due to inter-relationship between man and nature. These include settlements, towns, roads, industries, buildings etc. Thus Human Geography deals with the areal differentiation and organisation of human activities within physical environment.

Human Geography thus studies, on regional basis, the different human groups and their influences along with functional relations. The definition of human geography has changed with times. None of the definitions of human geography is universally accepted.

1. The German Geographer, Fredric Ratzal is called the father of modem Human Geography According to Ratzal, ‘ ‘Human Geography is related to Environment which is the sum total of physical conditions. ’ ’

2. According to E.C. Semple, “Human Geography is a study of the changing relationship between the unresting man and the unstable earth. ’’
3. According to Vidal de La Blache, ‘‘Human Geography is a study of inter-relationship of Earth and man. ’’

4. According to Brunhes, “Human Geography is the study of all those facts in which human activity plays a part.”

5. According to Ellseworth Huntington, “Human Geography may be defined as the study of natural distribution of relationships between geographical environment and human activities.”

6. According to D. H. Davis, “Human Geography is a study of the relationship between natural environment and human activities. ’ ’

7. According to White and Renner, “Human Geography is primarily human ecology and the study of human society in relation to the earth background.”

8. According to Dickens and Pits, “Human Geography is looked upon the study of man and his works.”

Question 2.
Describe the nature and scope of Human Geography.
Answer:
Nature of Human Geography. Human Geography aims to study the regional variations of human life on the earth. Great variations are found in colour, efficiency, livelihood, customs, religions, socio-economic conditions of different human groups living in different regions.

These are directly or indirectly influenced by physical environment. The interactive relationship between man and environment results in a cultural landscape. According to Finch and Trewortha, man and his cultural activities are the subject matter of Human Geography. In this, Human Geography studies the functional relationship between population, natural resources and cultural landscape.

In this context, Vidal de la Blache states, “Human Geography is the study of human influence on his occupation. It analyses the process of Environmental Adjustment, regional adaptation and spatial organisation. Man is an active agent, but it is not a part of environment.

Man creates a cultural landscape by modifying the environment. In this way, human geography studies the forces of physical environment like solar energy, gravity and other processes. Similarly human geography studies the forces of cultural activities. So study of Human Geography is essential for the study of Economic, Demographic and Historical Sciences.

Scope of Human Geography :

Human Geography has a wide scope. But there is a lot of difference in views of different scholars. Human Geography is a regional study of variation in mode of life of different human groups. The subject matter of human geography is nature and distribution of interrelationship between man and geographical environment.

Scope of Human Geography :

• The population and the capacity of a region.
• Natural resources of the region.
• Cultural patterns of the region.
• Man-Environment Adjustment in a region.
• Temporal Development.

Question 3.
Describe the main branches of Human Geography.
Answer:
Human Geography. Human Geography studies the influence of environment on human life. Man tries to modify his environment and creates man-made or cultural features. These features include agriculture, towns, settlements, means of transportation etc.

The study of these man-made features is called Human Geography. Human Geography is inter-disciplinary in nature. It develops close interface with other sister disciplines in social sciences. Human Geography may be divided into following main branches :

1. Cultural Geography. (Social Geography) :
This branch deals with the cultural aspects of different human groups. The cultural aspects include the following aspects :

• Shelter
• Food
• Clothing
• Skills
• Tools
• Language
• Religion
• Social organisation.

Some Geographers prefer to call it Social Geography. It includes many sub branches as :

• Behavioural Geography
• Geography of social well being
• Geography of leisure
• Gender Geography
• Medical Geography.

2. Economic Geography. Economic Geography studies the economic activities of man. It studies the distribution and utilisation of resources of the earth. It is a study of products in the form of their production, consumption and exchange. Its sub-branches are :

• Geography of Resources
• Geography of Agriculture
• Geography of Industries
• Geography of Marketing
• Geography of Tourism ‘
• Geography of International trade.

3. Population Geography. Population Geography deals with the study of biological and cultural characteristics of human groups. It studies the distribution of population, death rate, birth rate, age, sex composition, literacy, rural and urban settlements. It is called demography also.

4. Historical Geography. Historical Geography studies the geographical development of an area from time to time in the past. It helps us in understanding the region as it is at present.

5. Political Geography. It analyses the political and administrative decisions in different political units. It is concerned with boundaries, capitals, local government, international politics and regional planning. It has sub-branches of Electoral Geography and Military Geography.

6. Urban Geography. It deals with urban studies and planning.

7. Settlement Geography. It studies urban and rural settlement.

Human Geography: Nature and Scope Important Extra Questions HOTS

Question 1.
Describe human geography and associated discipline of social science.
Answer:
Human Geography and Sister Disciplines of Social Sciences

Here we are providing Class 12 Geography Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 7 Tertiary and Quaternary Activities. Geography Class 12 Important Questions are the best resource for students which helps in class 12 board exams.

Class 12 Geography Chapter 7 Important Extra Questions Tertiary and Quaternary Activities

Tertiary and Quaternary Activities Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Which two elements are included in tertiary activities ?
Answer:
Production and exchange.

Question 2.
What is trade ?
Answer:
Trade is essentially buying and selling of itmes produced elsewhere.

Question 3.
Name two types of trade.
Answer:
Retail trade and wholesale trade.

Question 4.
Name two types of trading centres.
Answer:
Rural and urban.

Question 5.
What are Quasi urban centres ?
Answer:
Rural marketing centres.

Question 6.
What are mandis ?
Answer:
Wholesale markets.

Question 7.
State four examples of retail trading service ?
Answer:
Street peddling, handcarts, mail-order and door to door.

Question 8.
Expand ICT.
Answer:
Information Communication Technologies.

Question 9.
What are Isochrone lines ?
Answer:
Isochrone lines are drawn on a map to join places equal in terms of the time taken to reach them.

Question 10.
Which is the fastest means of communication ?
Answer:
Mobile Technology and Satellites.

Question 11.
What are modes of Mass media ?
Answer:
Radio and Television.

Question 12.
Name three services involving mental labour.
Answer:
Teacher, lawyers and physicians.

Question 13.
Expand CBD.
Answer:
Central Business District.

Question 14.
Which industries are fostered by Tourism ?
Answer:
Infrastructure industries, Retail trading and Craft industries.

Question 15.
Name two tourist regions of the world.
Answer:
(i) Mediterranean coast
(ii) Goa coast.

Question 16.
What are entrepreneurs ?
Answer:
These are empowered workers which believe in self-actualisation and not wealth. They believe in value system, quality of life and creativity.

Question 17.
Analyse the development of service sector as an outcome of improvement in transport and communication.
(Sample Paper 2018-19)
Answer:
The service sector includes important services such as transportation and communication. Improvement in these services play an important role for integrated and facilitates economic development and growth.

Question 18.
Give two examples of high service.
Answer:
Finance and insurance.

Question 19.
Give one example of a global city.
Answer:
London.

Question 20.
What is the importance of secondary activities in the world ? (C.B.S.E. 2009)
Answer:
Secondary activities add value to natural resources by transforming raw materials to valuable products.

Question 21.
What was the initial form of trade in the primitive society ? (C.B.S.E. 2009)
Answer:
The initial form of trade in the primitive society was barter system. In this, direct exchange of goods take place without use of money.

Question 22.
Define the term ‘tertiary (C.B.S.E. 2013)
Answer:
Activities related to the service sector.

Question 23.
Give the meaning of retail.(C.B.S.E. 2013)
Answer:
Business activity concerned with the sale of goods directly to the consumer.

Question 24.
Write the meaning of Trading centres’. (Delhi 2019)
Answer:
From around the globe in the international trade trade centres brings together business.

Tertiary and Quaternary Activities Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What is trade ? What is its aim ? What are trading centres ? (C.B.S.E. 2011)
Answer:
Trade is essentially buying and selling of items produced elsewhere. It is of two types. Wholesale and Retail trade. The trade services are intended for profit. All this work takes place in towns and cities and are known as trading centres (Rural and Urban).

Question 2.
What are Periodic markets ?
Answer:
In rural areas, local periodic markets are organised. These may be weekly or bi-weekly. People from surrounding areas meet their demands from it. These markets move from one place to another. Thus shopkeepers serve a large area on all the days.

Question 3.
Describe the different types of stores. (C.B.S.E. 2017)
Answer:
(i) Consumer co-operatives. These provide large scale retailing.
(ii) Departmental stores. Heads of each department purchases and sells commodities.
(iii) Chain stores. These experiment sale of goods in one store and apply the results to other stores.

Question 4.
What is Transport Service ? Why is it necessary ?
Answer:
Transport is a service by which persons, manufactured goods and property are physically carried from one location to another. It is necessary to satisfy man’s basic need of mobility. It is necessary to have speedy and efficient transport system.

Question 5.
Describe any three characteristics is of chain stores in the world. (C.B.S.E. Outside 2017)
Answer:
The use of telecommunications finked to the development of electrical technology. It carries the messages with great speed. The time reduced is from weeks to minutes. Mobile telephones can send communications direct and instantaneusly at any time and from any where.

Question 6.
What are means of mass media ? Explain its different types.
Answer:
Radio and television also help to relay news, picture and telephone calls to vast audiences around the world and hence they are termed as mass media. Its functions:

• They are vital for advertising and entertainment.
• Newspapers are able to cover events in all corners of the world
• Satellite communication relays information of the earth and from space
• The internet has truly revolutionized the global communication system.

Question 7.
What is unorganised sector of services ? What do you know about Mumbai’s Dabbawala ?
Answer:
Unskilled workers migrate from rural to urban areas in search of employment. They are employed in domestic services as housekeepers, cooks, gardeners and are called unorganised sector. In India, Mumbai’s Dabbawala (Tiffin) service provides about 1,75,000 customers all over the city.

Question 8.
What is the basis of Quarternary services ? Which activities are involved in these ? (C.B.S.E. 2009)
Answer:
Knowledge based sector is called Quartemary services. It involves three processes.

• collection
• production
• dissemination of information.

Question 9.
What are Quinary activities ? Give examples. (C.B.S.E. 2009)(Sample Paper 2018-19)
Answer:
Quinary activities focus on the creative, re-arrangement of new and existing ideas, data interpretation and use of evaluation of new technologies. That is one highest level of decision makers. These are referred as Gold Collar professions. They have special and highly paid skills of senior business executives research scientists and financial consultants.

Question 10.
How does the climate of a region attract tourists. Explain with examples from different regions of the world. (C.B.S.E. 2009)
Answer:
Influence of climate in tourism.

Examples :
(i) Most people expect to have warm, sunny weather for beach holidays. This is one of the main reasons for the importance of tourism in South Europe.

(ii) The Mediterranean climate offers almost consistently high temperatures, long hours of sunshine and low rainfall throughout the peak holidays seasons.

(iii) People taking winter holidays have specific climate requirements, either highest temperatures than home, or snow suitable for skiing Mediterranean region is called ‘Playground of Europe’.

Question 11.
Distinguish between rural marketing centres and urban marketing centres.
Answer:
Rural marketing centres. These centres cater to nearby settlements. These are Quasi-urban centres. Here personal and professional services are not well developed. These form local collecting and distributing centres. Most of these have Mandis and also retailing centres. These supply goods demanded by rural folk. Periodic markets are held here—(weekly or bi-weekly).

Urban Marketing centres. These provide urban services. These supply specialized goods and services. These sell manufactured goods. Markets for labour, housing, semi-finished goods are held. These provide services of education, teachers, lawyers, consultants, physicians, dentists and veterinary doctors.

Question 12.
What do you know about medical services for overseas patients ?
Answer:
Medical Services for Overeas Patients in India. About 55,000 patients from USA visited India in 2005 for treatment. This is still a small number compared with the millions of surgeries performed each year in the $2 trillion U.S. health-care system. India has emerged as the leading country of medical tourism in the world.

World class hospitals located in the Metropolitan cities and Vellore cater to the patients all over the world. Medical tourism brings abundant benefits to developing countries like India, Thailand, Singapore and Malaysia.

Question 13.
Describe the major components of services.
Answer:
The major components of services may broadly be grouped as the following :
(i) Business Services include advertising, legal services, public relations, and consulting.

(ii) Finance, insurance and real estate include savings and investment banking, insurance and real estate (commercial as well as residential).

(iii) Wholesale and retail trading links the producers with consumers. Personal services such as maintenance services, beautician and repair work are included in this.

(iv) Transport and communications include railways, roadways, shipping and airline services and post and telegraph services.

(v) Entertainment includes television, radio, film, publishing and lodging.

(vi) Government at different levels—local, state and national includes bureaucracies, police and army, and other public services.

(vii) Non-governmental agencies include those organisations which have been set-up by individuals or groups for charity or non profit social activities concerning education, healthcare, environment, rural development, etc.

Question 14.
Discuss the nature and growth of Quarternary services in the world.
Or
‘The Modern Economic development in the world is the result of the development of quarternary services, Justify the statement. (C.B.S.E. 2014) (C.B.S.E. 2011)’.(Sample Paper 2)
Or
Evaluate the importance of quarternary activities. (C.B.S.E. 2018)
Answer:
Economic activities have become much more specialized and complex. As a result quarternary activities have come into use now. Activities concerning knowledge, education, information, research and development (R & D) are recognized as quarternary activities or services.

Main Characteristics :

• The term quaternary basically refers to the more intellectual occupations.
• Their task is to think, research and develop ideas.
• As such, this sector is especially concerned with research and development.
• In the most economically and advanced nations, the quarternary activities involve a small but growing proportion of the population.
• These people have the highest incomes and a higher degree of mobility in the process of career advancement.

Growth of Quarternary Activities :
In recent years, revolution in information technology has given rise to knowledge-based industries. There has been a remarkable growth in the science and technology based industrial complexes called Science and Technological parks.

Tertiary and Quaternary Activities Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Write the meaning of tourism. (Delhi 2019)
What is tourism? Explain the factors which attract the tourists in the world. I (Outside Delhi 2019)
Answer:
Tourism. Tourism is travel undertaken for purposes of recreation rather than business. Employment. It has become the world’s single largest tertiary activity in total registered jobs (250 million) and total revenue (40 per cent of the total GDP). Besides, many local persons, are employed to provide services like accommodation, meals, transport, entertainment and special shops to recreational travellers. Tourism fosters the growth of infrastructure industries, retail trading, and craft industries (souvenirs).

Seasonal and Year Round Tourism. In some regions, tourism is seasonal because the vacation period is dependent on favourable weather conditions, but many regions attract visitors all year round.

Tourist regions :

• Mediterranean Coast. The warmer places around the Mediterranean Coast.
• The West Coast (Goa and Kerala) of India are some of the people tourist destinations in the world.
• Winter sports regions, found mainly in mountainous areas.
• Various scenic landscapes and national parks, which are scattered.
• Historic towns also attract tourists, because of the monuments and cultural facilities.

Factors affecting tourism
(i) Demand. Since the last century, the demand for holidays has increased rapidly. Improvements in the standard of living and increased leisure time, permit many more people to go on holidays.

(ii) Transport. The opening-up of tourist areas has been aided by improvement in transport facilities. Travel is easier by car, with better road systems. More significant in recent years has been the expansion in air transport. For example, air travel allows one to travel anywhere in the world in a few hours’ of flying¬time from their homes. The advent of package holidays has reduced the costs.

(iii) Climate. Most people expect to have warm, sunny weather for beach holidays. This is one of the main reasons for the importance of tourism in South Europe. The Mediterranean climate offers almost consistently high temperatures, long hours of sunshine and low rainfall throughout the peak holidays season.

People taking winter holidays have specific climate requirements, either higher temperatures than home, or snow suitable for skiing. Mediterranean region is called ‘Playground of Europe’.

(iv) Landscape. Many people like to spend their holidays in an attractive environment, which often means mountains, lakes, spectacular sea coasts and landscapes not completely altered by man.

(v) History and the arts of an area have potential attractiveness. People visit ancient or picturesque towns and archaeological sites, and enjoy exploring castles, palaces and churches.

(vi) Culture and economy entice tourists with a penchant for experiencing ethnic and local customs. Besides, if a region provides for the needs of tourists cheeply (low-cost), it is lively to become very popular. Home-stay has emerged as a profitable business tourism segment in heritage homes in Goa and Madikere (Coorg, Karnataka).

Question 2.
What is meant by Outsourcing ? What is the role of KPO’s and BPO’s ?
Answer:
Outsourcing. Outsourcing or contracting out is giving work to an outside agency to improve efficiency and reduce costs. When outsourcing involves transferring work to overseas locations, it is described by the term off shoring, although both off shoring are outsourcing are used together.

Activities involved in outsourcing.

• information technology (IT)
• human resources
• customer support
• call centre services
• manufacturing
• and engineering.

Data processing is an IT related service easily be carried out in Asian, East European and African countries. In these countries IT skilled staff with good English language skills are available at low wages than those in the developed countries.

Thus, a company in Hyderabad or Manila does work on a project based on GIS techniques for a country like USA or Japan. Overhead costs are also much lower making it profitable to get job-work carried out overseas, whether it is in India, China or even a less populous country like Botswana in Africa.

Call Centres. Outsourcing has resulted in the mushrooming of call centres in India, China, Eastern Europe, Israel, Philippines and Costa Rica. It creates new jobs in these countries, but it has also led to a crisis for job seekers in the countries which outsources jobs.

KPO’s and BPO’s. New trends in quarternary services include knowledge processing, outsourcing (KPOs) and ‘home shoring’, the latter as an alternative to outsourcing. The KPO industry is distinct from Business Process Outsourcing (BPO). It involves more high skilled workers. It is information driven knowledge outsourcing.

KPO enables companies to create additional business opportunities. Examples of KPOs include research & development (R&D) activities. e-learning, business research, intellectual property (IP) research. Other related sectors the legal profession and the banking sector.

Question 3.
The global cities act as the command and control centres of the world system. Elaborate.
Answer:
One of the most significant effects of the internationalization of financial markets has been the growth of global cities, notably London, New York and Tokyo. Though a number of other cities such as Pairs, Toronto, Los Angeles, Osaka, Hong Kong and Singapore, are also important in a global economy, the role of the trio – New York, London and Tokyo in the production and transformation of international and economic relations in the late twentieth century has been the most significant.

They act as the command and control centres of the world system by providing home of massive complexes of financial firms, business services and corporate headquarters of Transnational corporations (TNCs). They create opportunities for interaction through face-to-face contact, political connections and cultural activities.

Telecommunications have a variety of impacts upon cities and regions, both positive and negative. Electronic systems are of great use in everyday life, including credit cards, visa, passports, tax records, medical report, telephone and crime statistics. But inequalities in access to internet internationally, measured in terms of hosts per 100,000 people reflect the long standing division between the developed and developing countries.

The best connected nations are Scandinavia, Canada and Australia. Countries such as UK, Germany and Japan are next in rank. The USA, surprisingly is ranked relatively low, reflecting its sizeable poorly served population. Yet 90 per cent of all international traffic is either to or from the USA. The vast majority of the world’s people in Asia, Africa and South America have little or no Internet access.

Tertiary and Quaternary Activities Important Extra Questions HOTS

Question 1.
Technology loosens the shackles of environment or human beings. Justify. (Sample Paper 2018-19)
Answer:
With the passage of time, people began to understand their environment and the forces of nature. With social and cultural development, humans developed better and more efficient technology. They moved from a state of necessity to a state of freedom. They created possibilities with the resources they obtained from the nature.

Question 2.
Define outsourcing. Which types of activities are outsourced?
Answer:
Outsourcing is giving work to an outside agency to improve efficiency and reduce costs. When outsourcing involves transferring work to overseas locations it is described by the term off shoring.

Activities

• Information technology
• Human Resources
• Customer support
• Call centre services etc.

Question 3.
‘Tertiary activities include both production and exchange.’ Explain giving examples.
Answer:
Tertiary activities include both production and exchange.
(a) The term production involves the provision of services that are consumed. The output is indirectly measured in terms of wages and salaries.

(b) The term exchange involves trade, transport and communication. These overcome distance. Tertiary activities involves the commercial output of services. These are not directly involved in the processing of physical raw materials.

Example :

• The work of a plumber.
• The work of an electrician and technician.
• The work of a laundrer, barber, shopkeeper.
• The work of a driver, cashier
• The work of a teacher, doctor, lawyer and a publisher.

Here we are providing Class 12 History Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 4 Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings: Cultural Developments. Class 12 History Important Questions are the best resource for students which helps in class 12 board exams.

Class 12 History Chapter 4 Important Extra Questions Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings: Cultural Developments

Thinkers, Beliefs, and Buildings Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Name the Begum of Bhopal who provided manely for the preservation of Sachi Stupa?
Answer:
Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jahan Begum.

Question 2.
Which thinkers emerged in the world during the mid-first millennium BCE?
Answer:
Zarathustra in Iran, Kong Zi in China, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle in Greece, and Mahavira and Gautam Budha in India.

Question 3.
When was Rigveda compiled?
Answer:
Between C. 1500 and 1000 BCE.

Question 4.
What is Rigveda consist of?
Answer:
Rigveda consists of hymns in praise of many deities such as Indra and Soma.

Question 5.
Who performed rajasuya and Ashvamedha sacrifices?
Answer:
They were performed by Chiefs and Kings with the help of Brahmins.

Question 6.
What is meant by Kutagarashala?
Answer:
A hut with a pointed roof.

Question 7.
Who questioned the authority of the Vedas?
Answer:
Mahavira and the Buddha questioned the authority of the Vedas.

Question 8.
Who started Jainism?
Answer:
Rishabdev was the first Tirthankar and Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankar of Jainism.

Question 9.
Name the religious texts of Jainism.
Answer:
Angas are the religious texts of Jainism.

Question 10.
Where did Buddhism spread?
Answer:
India, China, Korea, Japan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia.

Question 11.
What was the name given to Buddha at the time of his birth?
Answer:
Siddhartha.

Question 12.
Who was called the Enlightened One?
Answer:
Gautama Buddha was called the Enlightened one.

Question 13.
What is the world according to Buddhist philosophy?
Answer:
The world is transient and constantly changing.

Question 14.
What was Sangha?
Answer:
Sangha was an organization of monks of Buddhism who became teachers of Dhamma.

Question 15.
What names were given to males and females who entered Sanghas?
Answer:
Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis.

Question 16.
Except for Sanchi, where was another stupa of Buddhism?
Answer:
At Amravati.

Question 17.
Which sources are used by historians to reconstruct the exciting world of ideas and believes from 600 B.C.E. up to 600 C.E.?
Answer:

• Buddhist, Jaina, and Brahmanical texts.
• Large and impressive body of material remains including monuments and inscriptions.

Question 18.
Where is the stupa of Sanchi situated? Explain any one of its features.
Answer:
The Sanchi stupa is a wonderful ancient building in the state of Bhopal. It is situated in a village named Sanchi Kanakhera. This village is on the top of a hill. In fact, the stupa is nearly twenty miles north-east of Bhopal and looks like a crown.

Question 19.
What was the daily routine of the Buddhist monks?
Answer:

• The Buddhist monks led a simple life.
• They depended on offerings and alms. They kept only a bowl with them to accept food.

Question 20.
Why did Siddhartha adopt the path of Sanyas or renunciation?
Answer:
Having seen an old man, a sick man, and a dead man, Siddhartha (Buddha) realized that this world was a home of sorrows and sufferings. He realized that the decay and destruction of the human body was inevitable. However, he felt relieved when he saw a homeless mendicant. He decided that he would also adopt the same path. So, he left his palace and set out in search of truth and enlightenment.

Question 21.
How was the internal functioning of the Buddhist sangha?
Or
Mention the internal functioning of the Buddhist sanghas. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (O.D.))
Answer:
The internal functioning of the Buddhist sangha was based on the traditions of ganas and sanghas. According to this, the consensus was arrived at through mutual discussions. If they were unable to reach a consensus then decisions were taken by a vote on the subject.

Question 22.
In the primitive times, what places were considered sacred by the people? Give three points.
Answer: From the earliest times, people regarded those places as sacred that had the following features:

1. The sites with special trees.
2. The sites with unique rocks.
3. The sites having awe-inspiring beauty.

Question 23.
What are stupas?
Answer:
The stupas are the sacred mounds associated with Buddha. It is a Sanskrit word, which means a heap. It is a simple semi-circular mound of Earth. Later on, it was called anda.

Question 24.
Name any two features of the stupa at Amaravati.
Answer:

1. The stupa at Amaravati was the largest and the most magnificent stupa of the Buddhists.
2. It had high gateways and beautiful statues.

Question 25.
What is meant by Hagiography?
Answer:
Hagiography is a biography of a saint or religious leader. It generally praises the saint’s achievement and may not always be literally accurate. They are important because they tell us about the beliefs of the followers of that particular tradition.

Question 26.
What type of thinking did archaeologist H.H. Cole had about the shifting of ancient monuments?
Answer:
Cole was totally against taking away ancient monuments. He considered this loot as suicidal. He was of the view that museums should have plaster-caste facsimiles of the sculpture whereas the originals should remain at their actual place.

Question 27.
When was the stupa of Sanchi discovered? What was the condition of its gateways at that time?
Answer:
Stupa of Sanchi has discovered in 1818 C.E. It had four gateways. Three of these gateways were in good condition but the fourth gateway was lying scattered at its actual place.

Question 28.
What differences of opinions were there among the historians regarding the sculpture of a woman surrounded by the lotuses and the elephants found at Sanchi?
Answer:
Some historians believed that this is the figure of Maya, the mother of Buddha, while some identify her with a popular goddess, Gaja Lakshmi. Gaja Lakshmi was the goddess of good fortune who is associated with elephants.

Question 29.
Define garbhagriha and Shikhar.
Answer:
Garbhagriha: It was an early temple (small square room) where the image of the deity was kept. Worshippers entered from its single doorway to offer worship to the image.

Shikhar: A tall structure built over the central shrine was known as Shikhar.

Question 30.
What were Upanishads? Which ideas were found in them to show that people were curious?
Answer:
Upanishads were texts of deep ideas associated with life, death, and almighty. They tell us that people were curious about the meaning of life, the possibility of life after death and rebirth. They also wanted to know what is the relation between rebirth and past actions.

Question 31.
How Buddha’s and Mahavira’s ideas about trials and tribulations of worldly existence were in contrast to that of Brahmanical ideas?
Answer:
According to Brahmanism, an individual’s existence was determined by his or her birth in a specific caste or gender. His trials and tribulations were associated with it. On contrary to it, Buddha and Mahavira suggested that men and women themselves should try to attain liberation from trials and tribulations of worldly existence.

Question 32.
Who were Tirthankaras?
Answer:
According to Jaina traditions, there were twenty-three other teachers, before Mahavira, which were known as Tirthankaras. It literally means those who guide individuals across the river of existence.

Question 33.
How did Buddha attain true enlightenment?
Answer:
Buddha left pleasures of life at a young age in search of true enlightenment. He wandered about for years and kept discussing with different thinkers. In the end, he himself decided to find his way. He meditated for several days under a Banyan tree at Bodh Gaya. In the end, he attained enlightenment and came to be known as the Buddha.

Question 34.
Who was Vardhman Mahavira? How was he enlightened?
Answer:
Vardhman Mahavira was the most important teacher of Jainism. He was a Kshatriya prince. He was related to the Licchavi clan of Vajji sangha. He left his home at the age of 30, started to live in forests, and meditated for 12 years. Then, he got enlightened.

Question 35.
What do you mean by the concept of Trideva’s or three deities in Hinduism?
Answer:
The meaning of Trideva in Hinduism is by three deities out of which the first one is the creator, the second one is the sustainer and the third one is the destroyer. These three are the natural rules of the whole universe. Brahma is the creator of the universe, Vishnu takes care of it and Mahesha is the destroyer of evil.

Question 36.
Why did European scholars consider the images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas as the best examples of Indian art of sculptures?
Answer:
Buddha and Bodhisatta images were very much similar to Greek images. European scholars were very much familiar with Greek traditions which is why they considered these images as the best example of the Indian art of sculpture.

Question 37.
Why Buddhism became popular?
Answer:

• Buddhism was a simple religion that had no place for superstitions and other rituals.
• Buddhism was propagated in the Prakrit language used by common masses.
• Many kings became patrons of Buddhism.
• Buddhist Bhikkhus were individuals with great character.

Question 38.
Who was Ajivikas?
Answer:
Ajivikas were the supporters of materialism. They started fatalism in Buddhism and were given financial help by Ashoka the Great.

Question 39.
Mention how, according to Jainism, one can free himself from the cycle of Karma. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (O.D.))
Answer:
According to Jainism, the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through Karma. If one is to escape this cycle of Karma, one must practice asceticism and penance. It is only possible if one renounces the world. So, one has to live in a monastery to attain salvation.

Question 40.
Mention any four social groups from which the followers of Buddha came. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (D))
Answer:

1. Kings
2. Wealthy men
3. Grihapatis
4. Humbler folk: workers, slaves, craftspeople.

Question 41.
Mention the contents of Jatakas. What do they depict? (C.B.S.E. 2010 (D))
Answer:
Jatakas contain several animal stories. These were used as symbols of human attributes. Actually, Jatakas are the stories of earlier birth (Boddhitsava) of Mahatma Buddha.

Question 42.
Mention any two ways through which the Gandatindu Jatakas describe the political relations between the King and his subjects. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (D))
Answer:

1. The story indicates that the relations between the King and his subjects could often be strained due to the demand for high taxes from them.
2. Escaping into the forest by the subjects remained an option as reflected in the Tataka story.

Thinkers, Beliefs, and Buildings Important Extra Questions Short Answer

Question 1.
Where were the most ancient buildings located in Bhopal state? How was the eastern gateway of the stupa of Sanchi saved from being taken away?
Answer:
The most wonderful and ancient buildings are at Sanchi Kanakhera, a small village under the brow of a hill some 20 miles north-east of Bhopal.

Europeans, in the nineteenth century, were very much interested in the Sanchi Stupa. The Eastern gateway of this stupa was in very good condition and was the center of special attraction for foreigners. The French wanted to preserve it in a museum in France. That is why they sought permission from Shahjehan Begum. For a while, the Englishmen also made such efforts. However, fortunately, both the English and the French were satisfied with its plaster-cast copies. In this way, originals remained at the site.

Question 2.
Why the mid-first millennium. B.C.E. is regarded as the turning point in the world’s history?
Or
“The mid-first millennium B.C.E. is often regarded as the turning point in ^ the world history.” Justify the statement. (C.B.S.E. 2011, 2016 (D) (OD))
Answer:
The mid-first millennium B.C.E. is regarded as a turning point in the world’s history as it saw the emergence of many thinkers in different parts of the world. Thinkers like Zarathustra in Iran, Kong Zi in China, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in Greece, and Mahavira and Buddha in India emerged in this age.

They tried to understand the mysteries of existence and the relation between human beings and cosmic order. This was the time when new kingdoms were emerging in Ganga valley. Social and economic life was changing. All these thinkers were trying to understand these developments as well.

Question 3.
“Around 6th century B.C.E., any particular sect could grow and shrink over time.” Elucidate the statement by giving a proper reason.
Answer:
There is a mention of 64 sects or schools of thought in the contemporary Buddhist texts. We get a glimpse of lively discussions and debates from these texts. We come to know that the teachers traveled from one place to another, trying to convince each other and the common masses about the validity of their philosophy and the way in which they understood the world.

These debates generally took place in the Kutagarashala (a hut with pointed roof) or in groves where traveling teachers stayed. If any teacher or philosopher succeeded in convincing one of his rivals then the followers of his rival became his disciples. That is why, with time, support for a particular sect could grow and shrink over time.

Question 4.
Give a brief description of the teachings of Buddhism.
Or
Explain briefly the teachings of the Buddha. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (D))
Or
Describe briefly the teachings of Mahatma Buddha. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (O.D.))
Or
Describe the teachings of the Buddha. (C.B.S.E. 2011 (D))
Or
“Buddha laid stress on right conduct and values.” In the light of the above message, explain his teachings on life. (C.B.S.E. 2014 (£)))
Or
Explain the main teachings of Buddha. (C.B.S.E. 2018)
Or
“Describe the teachings of Buddha and development of Buddhist ideas and practices by the first century C.E. (C.B.S.E. 2019 (O.D.))
Answer:
The main teachings of the Buddha areas

1. The world is transient. It is constantly changing. It is also without any soul. There is nothing eternal or permanent in it.
2. Sorrow is intrinsic to human existence. Human beings can get rid of all worldly troubles by following the path of moderation between severe penance and self-indulgence.
3. The existence of God-whether it is or not-was irrelevant in the earliest forms of Buddhism.
4. Buddha believed that the decay and the destruction of the human body were inevitable.
5. Buddha believed that the social world was the creation of humans were: It had no divine origin. So, he advised kings and chapatis to be humane and ethical. Buddha emphasized that the individual effort could transform social relations.
6. Buddha believed that righteous action was the means to escape the cycle of re-birth.
7. According to the Buddha, the salvation or the attainment of self-realization (Nibbana) could be possible if a person ended his ego and desires.
8. The Buddha advised all his followers to be their own lamps. They must work out their own salvation or liberation.

Question 5.
“The symbols used in the sculpture at Sanchi emerged out of popular traditions.” Give examples.
Answer:
Many sculptures at Sanchi were not inspired by Buddhist ideas. For example, there are many fine depictions of animals. These animals included elephants, horses, monkeys, and cattle. Most of these animals were carved to create lively scenes to draw maximum viewers. They were used as symbols of human attributes. For example, elephants signified strength and wisdom.

Then, there is another motif in which a woman is surrounded by lotuses and elephants. The animals are sprinkling water on her. They seem to perform an abhisheka or consecration. Some historians consider this woman as Maya, the mother of Buddha. However, a few other historians consider this woman as a symbol of Gajalakshmi, the goddess of good fortune. Then, there are many pillars that depict a serpent. James Fergusson, a modern art historian, considered Sanchi to be a center of tree and serpent worship. In other words, most of the symbols were derived from popular traditions.

Question 6.
What was the Bodh Sangha? Discuss its characteristics.
Answer:
Buddha became very popular and many people became his disciples. So, Buddha founded a Sangha, which was an organization of monks. These monks served as teachers of Dhamma. They lived a simple life. They possessed only the essential things, which were required for their survival. For example, they kept only a bowl to receive food once a day. They lived on alms. So, they were known as bhikkhus.

1. Admission of women in the sangha: Earlier only men were allowed to join the Sangha. Later on, the women were allowed admission to the sangha. It could be possible because of the persuasion of Ananda, one of the dearest disciples of Buddha. Mahaparajapati Gotami, the foster-mother of Buddha, was the first woman who was admitted to the Sangha as a bhikkhuni. Many women became teachers of Dhamma. They became this or respected women as they had attained liberation.

2. Equal status for all: The followers of the Buddha came from many social groups. They included wealthy and strongmen like the kings and Brihaspati. Many of his followers were from the humble folk such as workers, slaves, and craft people. So, all the members were regarded as equal in the Sangha. All had to shed their earlier identities on becoming bhikkhus and bhikkhunis.

3. The functioning of the sangha: The sanghas were based on the traditions of ganas and sanghas. Discussions were held but all decisions were taken after reaching the consensus. In case there was no consensus, the decisions were taken on the basis of votes.

Question 7.
Why is the sixth century B.C.E. considered very important in Indian history?
Or
Give two reasons why the sixth century B.C.E. is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (D))
Or
Why is the sixth century B.C.E. often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history?
(C.B.S.E. 2015 (D))
Answer:
The 6th century B.C.E. is considered the most important in the history of India on account of the following reasons :
1. The Vedic tradition lost its grip in the sixth century B.C.E. There was the importance of meditation because of the increasing significance of Upanishads. People were curious to find new ways of seeking nirvana or salvation or self-realization. Consequently, many new philosophical ideas emerged in society.

2. Due to the emergence of new philosophical ideas, many new religious communities took birth. They were about 62 in number. Out of these, Jainism and Buddhism influenced the people the most. As a result, there was a change in the nature of Indian society.

3. Jainism and Buddhism emphasized meditation and self-control. Their views were synonyms to the views expressed in the Upanishads. So, the philosophy of the Upanishads became quite popular.

Question 8.
Give reasons for the emergence of new religious sects during sixth-century B.C.E.
Answer:
Many new religious sects emerged in North-Eastern India during the sixth century B.C.E. Following were their main reasons for emergence :

1. Complexity in Vedic religion: Earlier, Vedic religion was very simple but gradually its rule became very complex. So, people wanted to have a simple religion.

2. Caste system and untouchability: Shudras were badly hated by the upper three castes. This lower class of society wanted to have another religion, which could give them their rightful place

3. Difficult language: All the famous texts of Vedic religion were in the Sanskrit language. General masses were unable to understand this language.

4. Birth of great men: Two great men were born in the sixth century B.C.E.—Mahavir and Mahatama Buddha. They brought some reforms in Hinduism and presented in a new form. However their teachings took form of two new religions, which became very popular as Jainism and Buddhism.

Question 9.
What was the impact of Jainism on Indian society ?
Or
Explain the most important idea of Jainism and its impact on Indian thinking. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (D))
Answer:
The most important idea of Jainism is that the whole of the world is animated. All stones, rocks and water have life.

Impact on Indian thinking: Jainism had great impacts on the Indian society. Jainism denounced the caste system. As a result, the caste system started to decline. When Brahmanas observed the popularity of simple rules of this sect, they also left the customs of animal sacrifice, rituals and other evils. As a result, Vedic religion again came into a simple form. Jainism gave stress on non-violence.

That is why its followers became vegetarian and left eating the flesh of animals. Jainas built great temples and Maths in memory of their Tirthankars. Jaina temple of Dilwara, Jaina temple of Mt. Abu, Ellora caves, and Jaina temples of Khajuraho are the finest examples of this art. This religion helped in making the progress of literature of many languages like Kannada, Hindi, Gujarati, and Marathi.

Question 10.
What was the impact of Buddhism on Indian society?
Answer:

1. Moral of people become very high. They left many bad habits like lying, theft, criticism of anyone, etc.
2. The eating habits of people changed drastically. People adopted the concept of non-violence and left eating flesh completely. They become vegetarian after adopting this religion.
3. Many stupas, Maths, viharas were built because of Buddhism. All these are the finest examples of architecture of that age.
4.  Many texts, related to the teachings and life of Mahatama Buddha were written. As a result, the Indian literature developed to a great extent.
5. Buddhism influenced the state-policies of many kings. For example, Ashoka, under the influence of Buddhism, made an objective of his life-the welfare of the public. In the same way, Kanishka and Harsha also did a lot for the welfare of the public.

Question 11.
Why Jainism was less popular in comparison with Buddhism?
Answer:
There were some of the reasons for Jainism being less popular in comparison with Buddhism and these were :

1. Jainism gave stress to asceticism and penance in which one has to live for many days without eating or drinking anything. Common people were not been able to live such a hard life.
2. Followers of Jainism hardly gave stress on spreading its teachings.
3. The concept of non-violence given by this religion took a very strict form.
4. Like Buddhism, Jainism hardly got any help or protection from the state
5. The principles of Buddhism were more simple than that of Jainism. That is why more and more people joined Buddhism and Jainism lost its importance.

Question 12.
Write a note on Gautama Buddha.
Or
Describe how Buddha’s first journey into the outside world transformed his life. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (D))
Answer:
Gautama Buddha was born in 566 B.C.E., at Kapilvastu. His childhood name was Siddhartha. His father’s name was Shudhdhodhan and his mother’s name was Mahamaya. His mother died after few days of his birth. His father built a beautiful palace for him but he never liked anything. So, his father married him to princess Yashodhara. Even a son was born to them but still, he was not happy.

He was deeply anguished when he saw an old man, a sick man, and a corpse. He wanted to know the reasons for these sorrows, so he left the palace and set out in search of his own truth. He meditated for six years and finally attained enlightenment. After this, he comes to be known as the Buddha. He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Benaras. Here, five persons became his followers. Later on, his followers increased rapidly. He attained the Mahanirvana at Kusinagara at the age of eighty years.

Question 13.
Describe the similarities between Jainism and Buddhism.
Answer:
Following were the main similarities between Jainism and Buddhism :

• The founders of both religions were Kshatriya Prince. Both of them left their houses and meditated a lot. In this way, they both were enlightened.
• Both the religions emerged in the form of reaction to Hinduism. Both Lord Mahavira and the Buddha opposed the prevailing evils of Hinduism and kept very simple rules of religion in front of the public. That is why the teachings of both took the form of different religions.
• Both the religions gave stress on non-violence. According to them, giving physical or mental pain to any living being is a sin.
• Both the religions denounced the caste system. According to them, no one is inferior or superior on the basis of caste.

Question 14.
What were the dissimilarities between Jainism and Buddhism?
Answer:
Following were the main dissimilarities between Jainism and Buddhism.
1. Both religions have different methods of adopting non-violence. According to Buddhism, we should not physically or mentally hurt any living being. But Jainism took a very strict form of non-violence. According to it, hurting any living non-living being is against non-violence.

2. Both religions have different views regarding the methods to be adopted for achieving salvation. According to Buddhism, one should follow Eight Fold Path to attain Nibbana. On the other side, Jainism believed in strict meditation to achieve salvation.

3. Both religions have different religious texts. Popular texts of Buddhism are Tripatak’ and ‘Jatakas’. But popular texts of Jainism are ‘Ang’ and ‘Upang’.

4. Buddhism greatly spread in foreign countries and even today one-third of the world’s population follow this religion. But Jainism is confined only within the limits of India.

Question 15.
Write a note on Bhagvatism.
Answer:
Pragmatism is a form of Vaishnavism. The top-most deity of this sect was the son of Devki, Vasudev Krishna. This sect spread to a very large area till the second century B.C.E. An inscription found at Vidisha district of Madhya Pradesh revealed that one Greek ambassador in India, Heliyodrus was the follower of Lord Krishna. Few inscriptions found in Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh mention that Bhagavatism also spread over there. From this, it is clear that, like Buddhism, Bhagavatism also attracted foreigners. The philosophy of this sect is mentioned in the ‘Bhagavat Gita’.

Question 16.
Discuss the contribution of Buddha and Jain communities in Indian art and literature.
Answer:
In Indian art and literature, the followers of Buddhism and Jainism adopted Prakrit, which was a language of the common people. Both the communities composed their literature in this language. As a result, the Prakrit language became very rich and prosperous. It gave birth to many regional languages. Out of these, Shaurseni, which helped in the genesis of Marathi, is worth mentioning.

The Jains composed many of their important works in the Upbransh language. They also prepared their first grammar in this language. However, most of the Jain literature is in the manuscript. It is unpublished. There are many such manuscripts in Jain monasteries at Gujarat and Rajasthan.

In the Middle Ages, the Jains made abundant use of the Sanskrit language. They wrote many books in this language. They also played a great role in the development of the Kannada language. They also composed many books in the Kannad language.

Like the Buddhists, the Jains were also not worshippers of the idols in the early stages. But later on, they started worshipping statues of the Tirthankars. They also got built large statues. They were erected mainly in Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh. The Jains played a praiseworthy role in the art and sculpture of the Middle Ages.

Question 17.
What were the reasons for the popularity of Buddhism?
Or
Describe the causes of the spread of Buddhism.
Or
“Buddhism grow rapidly both during the lifetime of the Buddha and also after his death.” Justify the statement. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (D))
Or
Explain briefly the causes of the rapid growth of Buddhism during and also after the lifetime of Buddha. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (O.D))
Answer:
Buddhism originated in sixth-century B.C.E. This religion became very popular rapidly because of the following reason:

1. Teachings of Buddhism were very simple. Even common masses were able to understand them easily.
2. Mahatama Buddha gave his teachings in the language of the common masses. As a result, a number of people started to follow Buddha.
3. Mahatama Buddha severely denounced the caste system. As a result, many lower caste people adopted this religion.
4. People were very much impressed by the good character of Buddhist monks. As a result, they became followers of Buddhism.
5. Buddhism got protection from many great kings like Ashoka and Harsha. Buddhism not only spread in India but abroad as well because of the efforts of its patrons.

Question 18.
Describe similarities and diss¬imilarities between Hinduism and Buddhism.
Answer:
Similarities:

1. Both the religions believed in Karma theory and accepted that an individual takes birth again and again because of his Karmas or actions.
2. Both the religions believed in morality, truth, and simple life.
3. The main objective of both religions is to attain Nibbana or salvation.
4. Both religions give stress on the sense of tolerance.

Dissimilarities:

1. Hinduism believed in the authority of God and worship by considering it as all-powerful. But Buddhism is mum about God.
2. Buddhism, like Hinduism, did not accept caste discrimination, the importance of Brahmans and Sanskrit, the superiority of Vedas, etc.
3. Hinduism believed that Nibbana could be attained through yajnas, sacrifice, prayer, and other rituals. But Buddhism hardly believed in these things.
4. Buddhism gives enough stress on non-violence and is against eating other animals. But Hinduism hardly gives too much stress on non-violence.

Question 19.
“Except sculptures, paintings were a very important source of understanding the past.” Elucidate the statement by giving an example of paintings of Ajanta.
Answer:
Stone sculptures survive for quite a long time. That is why they are most easily available to historians were: But other means of communication, like paintings, were also used in the past. Those paintings which have survived best are on the walls of caves. Out of those, paintings from Ajanta (Maharashtra) are the most famous.

The paintings of Ajanta depict stories from the Jatakas. These include a depiction of courtly life, processions, men and women at work and festivals. The technique of shading was used by the artists to give a three-dimensional quality. Some of the paintings looked extremely naturalistic.

Question 20.
Describe the growth of temple architecture in the early Indian period.
Or
Describe the main features of early temples. How did the chief sculpture of Kailash Temple at Ellora express his amazement after its completion? (C.B.S.E. 2009 (D))
Or
Describe the main features of temple architecture in early India. (C.B.S.E. Sample Paper 2011)
Or
Describe briefly the features of early temples made during the period when stupas were built in Sanchi. (C.B.S.E. 2011 (D))
Answer:
In the early period, the central points of development in the temple sculpture were as under:

1. The temples came into existence almost at the same time when the stupas were developed at Sanchi.
2. The early temples were in the form of a small square room which was called the Garbhagriha. It had a single doorway through which the worshippers entered the temple to worship the images of gods or goddesses.
3. A tall structure was gradually built over the central shrine. It was called Shikhara.
4. The walls of the temples were often decorated with beautiful sculptures.
5. Some of these temples were hollowed out of huge rocks, they looked like artificial caves. In the 8th century, the temple of Kailashnatha was the culminated form of such temples. It was developed by cutting the whole hill.

The chief sculptor of the Kailash Temple of Ellora expressed his amazement after his completion with these words, “Oh, how did I make it!”

Question 21.
What were the main characteristics of Bhakti?
Answer:
Bhakti meant deep devotion towards any god or goddess. The tradition of Bhakti became quite popular after the Mauryan period. Its features were as follows:

1. Those who followed the path of Bhakti believed in pretensions. They emphasized individual worship with deep devotion.
2. Those who followed the path of Bhakti believed that the worship should be true. God appears in the form in which the devotee wants to see him. The god or goddess can also be in human form. They can even exist in the form of a lion, a tree, r any other shape. As society accepted this view, the sculptors started making beautiful statues.
3. The gods and goddesses were given special respect. Their idols were installed in the temples.
4. The tradition of Bhakti inspired expression through pictorial art, sculpture,and craft.
5. The path of Bhakti was open for all whether the rich or the poor, the men or the women, the upper caste or the lower caste.

Question 22.
Explain what happened to the Amaravati Stupa and why? (B.S.E. 2008 (O.D.))
Or
Explain why the Stupa at Sanchi survived but not at Amaravati. (C.B.S.E. 2018)
Answer:
Amaravati Stupa was discovered all of a sudden. It was the most beautiful and largest stupa of the Buddhists. In 1854, the Commissioner of Guntur (Andhra Pradesh) visited the Stupa of Amaravati. He took many statues and idols of this place to Madras. In that decade, many stones of Amaravati were taken to different places.

Some of the stones reached the Asiatic Society of Bengal at Calcutta. Many of them reached Indian Offices at Madras. A few ones were even taken to London. Many statues of Amaravati adored the gardens of the British officials. In reality, every new official of this region carried away the stones and idols on the plea that their predecessors had also done so. As a result of this, the Stupa of Amaravati was shattered.

In the case of Sanchi, it was well preserved by the Begums of Bhopal along with the British. They gave away a lot of money to preserve Sanchi but this did not happen in the case of Amaravati.

Question 23.
Explain how in the case of Vaishnavism, cults developed around the various avatars of the deity. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (D))
Answer:
In the case of Vaishnavism, cults developed around the different avatars of the deity. Within this tradition, ten avatars were recognized. These ten avatars were the forms that the deity was believed to have taken to save the world from the disordered destruction. It was so because the world was dominated by evil forms of different times. It is also likely that these different avatars were popular in different parts of the country. Recognizing every local deity as a form of Vishnu was one way of creating a more unified religious tradition.

Question 24.
Describe briefly the early Stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut. (C.B.S.E. 2009 (D))
Answer:
The Sanchi Stupa is the most wonderful ancient building in the state of Bhopal, It is situated in a village named Sanchi. Kanakhera. This village is on the top of a hill. In fact, the stupa is nearly twenty miles north-east of Bhopal and looks, like a crown. The Stupa at Sanchi is the best-preserved monument. It is a wonderful sculpture and has been an important center of Buddhism. Its discovery has changed our perception of the early time of Buddhism.

Question 25.
Critically examine why the stupa at Sanchi survived while Amaravati stupa did not. (C.B.S.E. 2010 (O.D.))
Answer:
Archaeologist H.M. Cole believed that museums should have plaster-case facsimiles of sculpture, whereas the originals should remain where they had been found. Unfortunately, Cole was unable to convince the authorities about Amaravati but his plea for in-Site preservation was adopted in the case of Sanchi. As a result, Sanchi survived but Amaravati did not.

Perhaps Amaravati was discovered before scholars understood the value of the find and realized how critical it was to preserve things where they had been found instead of removing them from the site.

Sanchi was discovered in 1818. At that time, three of its gateways were still standing. The fourth gateway was lying on the spot where it had fallen. The mound was in good condition

Then it was suggested that the gateway be taken to either London or Paris. But due to a number of reasons, Sanchi was kept as it was and so it stands. On contrary to it, mahachaitya at Amaravati is now only a little mound, whose glory has been lost.
Answer:
According to Buddhist teachings, the greatest aim of man’s life is to attain Nibbana (Nirvana). Nibbana literally means the extinction of desire. In other words, the end of the desire leads to the end of human suffering. It is also a state of peace and tranquility that a man can attain. It can be achieved by following the Eight-fold Path. According to Buddhist tradition, his last words to his followers were, “Be lamps unto yourselves as all of you must work out your own liberation.”

Question 27.
Describe how Buddha’s teachings have been reconstructed ‘ from the stories of Sutta Pitaka. (C.B.S.E. 2011 (O.D.))
Answer:
Sutta Pitaka is an important text of Buddhism. The Buddha’s teachings have been reconstructed from the stories found mainly in the Sutta Pitaka. Although few stories describe his miraculous powers, others suggest that the Buddha tried to convince people through reason and persuasion rather than through displays of supernatural power.

For example, when grief-stricken women whose child had died came to Buddha. He gently convinced her about the inevitability of death rather than bring her son back to life. These stories were narrated in the language spoken by ordinary people so that these could be easily understood.

Question 28.
Describe the ideas of the Buddha and Lord Mahavira on the authority of Vedas. (C.B.S.E. 2011 (O.D.))
Answer:
Buddha and Lord Mahavira were respectively the founders of Buddhism and Jainism. Both raised questions about the authority of the Vedas. They suggested that men and women themselves could try to attain liberation from the trials and tribulations of worldly existence. This was in marked contrast to the Brahmanical position, wherein, individual’s existence was thought to be determined by his or her birth in a specific caste or gender.

According to Buddhist tradition, his last words to his followers were, “Be lamps unto yourselves as all of you must work out your own liberation”. Both the Buddha and Lord Mahavira opposed animal sacrifice and the performing of yajnas.

Question 29.
Explain how the ideas of Puranic Hinduism developed in different ways within the tradition. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (O.D.))
Or
Describe the factors that led to the growth of Puranic Hinduism in India during the 6th century B.C.E. (C.B.S.E. 2014 (O.D.))
Answer:
Puranic Hinduism originated from the notion of a Saviour. Two traditions were part of Hinduism- Vaishnavism, and Shaivism. Vishnu was the principal deity in Vaishnav tradition and Lord Shiva was regarded as the chief God in Shaivism. In both traditions, special emphasis was laid on the worship of a specific deity. In this type of worship, the bond between the devotee and God was seen as one of love and devotion. It is called Bhakti.

Incarnation or Avtarism: Various cults were developed around various avatars of Vishnu in Vaishnavism. Ten avatars were recognized in this tradition. It has been believed that whenever the world is threatened by disorder and destruction because of the dominance of evil forces, the deity takes avatars to save the world in different forms. Probably different avatars were popular in different parts of the country. All the local deities were recognized as a form of Vishnu and Vaishnavism became a more unified religious tradition.

Question 30.
‘Righteous action is the means to escape from the cycle of rebirth and philosophy of life. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (D))
Answer:
The Buddha emphasized individual agency and righteous action as the means to escape from the cycle of rebirth and attain self-realization and Nibbana (nirvana), literally the extinguishing of the ego and desire-and thus end the cycle of suffering for those who renounced the world. According to Buddhist tradition, his last words to his followers were: “Be lamps unto yourself as all of you must work out your own liberation.”

Thinkers, Beliefs, and Buildings Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Describe the Tirthankaras of Jainism. Discuss their main teachings about Jainism.
Answer:
Jainism has 24 Tirthankaras. It had the following most important Tirthankaras :
1. Rishabhnath. He was the first Tirthankara of Jainism. According to tradition, he was a king. He left his throne for his son named Bharat.

2. Pasharvnath. He was the 23rd Tirthankara of Jainism. He was the son of Ashavsen, the King of Kashi. He renounced the world at the age of thirty. He attained true enlightenment after a deep meditation for only three months. He spent the rest of his life as a Dharam Guru. He attained Nibbana at the age of a hundred.

3. Vardhman Mahavir. He was the 24th and the last Tirthankara of Jainism. He was born at Vaishali in the 6th century B.C.E. His childhood name was Vardhman. The name of his father was Siddharth and the name of his mother was Trishala. He was married to Yashodhara when he was quite young and was blessed with a son. He left his house at the age of thirty and practiced penance for many years. He attained enlightenment at the age of forty-two. He spent the rest of his life preaching religion. He attained Nibbana at the age of seventy-two.

Teachings of Jainism and Tirathankars. The religion that the Tirathankars preached came to be known as Jainism. The main teachings of this religion are as follows :

1. Tri-Ratna. According to Jainism, the ultimate aim of human life is the attainment of Nirvana or salvation. There are three means to attain this nirvana—pure knowledge, pure character, and pure philosophy. These three principles of Jainism are known as the Tri-ratan.
2. Belief in Penance. The followers of Jainism believed in asceticism and penance. They gave more and more torture to their bodies. They believed that salvation could be achieved by giving more and more pain to the human body.
3. Non-Violence. Jainism has emphasized ahimsa or non-violence in life. The followers of this religion believed that all things of this world are animate. So they considered it a sin to cause any injury to any human being, animal, plant, or insect.
4. No Faith in God. The followers of Jainism do not believe in God though they accept its existence. They worship their Tirathankars in place of God.
5. No Faith in the Vedas. The disciples of Jainism do not consider the Vedas as having divine knowledge. They do not consider the means of salvation mentioned in the Vedas as important. They believed that yajnas were futile.
6. Belief in Soul. The followers of Jainism accept the existence of the soul. According to them, the soul is immortal. Though it is in the body, yet it is distinct and different from the body.
7. No Faith in Caste System. The followers of Jainism do not believe in Casteism. According to them, all people are equal. No one can be high or low on the basis of caste.
8. Belief in the Theory of Karma. According to Jainism, the cycle of birth and re-birth is shaped through Karma. The next birth depends on the deeds done in the present life. So we should perform good deeds.
9. Attainment of Salvation. According to Jainism, salvation means that the soul should be free from the bond of Karmas. When the cycle of Karma ends, the individual attains salvation.
10. Emphasis on Righteous Conduct. Mahavir inspired all his disciples and followers to lead a high world life. He advised all to beware of anger, greed, jealousy, theft, and unethical deeds.

Question 2.
How were the Stupas discovered? Comment on their export citing examples of the Stupas at Amaravati and Sanchi.
Answer:
The Stupa of Amaravati was found all of a sudden. In 1796, a local Raja wanted to build a temple. He stumbled upon the ruins of the Stupa at Amaravati. He decided to use the stone. Then he thought that there might be a treasure buried in that hill-like place. After many years, this site was visited by Colin Mackenzie, a British official. He found many pieces of sculpture. He made detailed drawings of them. But all his reports remained unpublished.

Walter Elliot, the Commissioner of Guntur (Andhra Pradesh) visited Amaravati in 1854. He collected many sculpture panes and took them away to Madras. These sculpture panes were later on known as the Elliot Marbles as they were named after his name. He also discovered the remains of the western gateway. He concluded that the structure at Amaravati was very large and magnificent.

In the 1850s, some of the slabs from Amaravati were taken to the Asiatic Society of Bengal at Calcutta. Some other slabs were taken to the India office in Madras. A few others were taken to London. These slabs of sculpture adorned the gardens of a few British administrators. In fact, whenever a new official came in the area, he removed a few sculptures from the site on the plea that earlier officials had done the same.

Export of the Stupas at Sanchi and Amaravati

A few archaeologists had a different view about the export of Stupas at Sanchi and Amaravati. According to H.H. Cole, “It seems to be a suicidal and indefensible policy to allow the country to be looted of original works of ancient art.” He believed that the original pieces of sculpture should not be dislocated. Rather all the museums should have plaster cast facsimiles of the sculpture. However, Cole failed to convince the officials about the importance of Amaravati. But his views about Sanchi were accepted. Hence, the Stupa at Sanchi survived whereas the Stupa at Amaravati could not.

Why did Sanchi survive whereas Amaravati did not?
Answer:
Amaravati was discovered earlier than Sanchi. But the scholars at that time could not realize the importance of preserving such monuments. They did not understand that these things should have been preserved where they had been found. They should not have been removed from the site.

Sanchi was discovered in 1818. At that time, three of its four gates were intact. They still stood in a good condition. The fourth gateway had fallen down. The entire mound was in good condition. No doubt some people suggested that the gateway should be taken either to Paris or London. But at last, Sanchi was kept as it was. On the other hand, the mahachaitya at Amaravati became an insignificant little mound. It had lost much of its past glory.

Question 3.
How did Puranic Hinduism grow? Give its main features.
Or
Explain how the ideas of Puranic Hinduism developed in different ways within the tradition. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (O.D.))
Answer:
Puranic Hinduism originated from the notion of a Saviour. Two traditions were part of Hinduism-Vaishnavism and Shaivism. Vishnu was the principal deity in Vaishnav tradition and Lord Shiva was regarded as the chief God in Shaivism. In both traditions, special emphasis was laid on the worship of a specific deity. In this type of worship, the bond between the devotee and God was seen as one of love and devotion. It is called Bhakti.

Incarnation or Avtarism: Various cults were developed around various avatars of Vishnu in Vaishnavism. Ten avatars were recognized in this tradition. It has been believed that whenever the world is threatened by disorder and destruction because of the dominance of evil forces, the deity takes avatar to save the world in different forms. Probably different avatars were popular in different parts of the country. All the local deities were recognized as a form of Vishnu and Vaishnavism became a more unified religious tradition.

Sculptures: Some of the avatars represented in sculptures of other deities were also made. Shiva was represented by the ‘Linga’ but he was also represented in human form in many sculptures. All these representations of deities were based on a complex set of ideas. Their attributes and symbols were depicted from their headdresses, ornaments, and weapons or auspicious objects the deities hold in their hands, how they are seated, etc.

Stories of Puranas: In order to understand the meaning of these sculptures, historians have to be familiar with the stories associated with them. Some stories are found even in the most of the stories of Puranas were developed through mutual contracts of people. Priests, merchants, common men, and women used to move from one place to another and used to exchange their beliefs and ideas. For example, Vasudeva-Krishna was an important deity of the Mathura region. But during many centuries, his worship spread to different parts of the country as well.

Question 4.
How Buddhist texts were prepared and preserved?
Or
Explain how the Buddhist texts give a glimpse of discussion and debates among people of different schools of thought. (C.B.S.E. 2011 (D))
Answer:
Buddha used to give teachings through debate and discussion. Men, women, and children attended these discussions and discussed what they heard. None of his teachings were written down during his lifetime. After his death, his followers called a council of elders at Vaishali. This council compiled all of his teachings. These compilations were known as Tripitaka which literally means the three baskets to hold different types of texts. Firstly they were transmitted orally and then written and classified according to their subject matter and length.

Tripitaka: Three pitakas are inlcuded in Tripitaka-Vinay Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma pitaka.

• Vinay Pitaka is the collection of rules and regulations for those who joined the Sangha or monastic order.
• Buddha’s teachings were included in Sutta Pitaka.
• Philosophical matters are dealt with in Abhidhamma Pitaka.
  Each Pitaka consists of many individual texts. Later on, Buddhist scholars wrote commentaries on these texts.

Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa: When Buddhism spread to new lands like Sri Lanka, other texts like Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa were written. These texts contain regional histories of Buddhism. Some of these texts had biographies of Buddha. Most of the oldest texts were in the Pali language but later on, texts were also written in the Sanskrit language.

Preserving Buddhist text: When Buddhism spread to east Asian countries, then many pilgrims like Fa Xian and Xuan Zang traveled from China to India. They took many texts to their country where they were translated by many scholars. Indian Buddhist teachers also traveled to different countries.

They carried Buddhist texts with them to disseminate the teachings of Buddha. For many centuries, these manuscripts were preserved in monasteries of different parts of Asia. Scholars also prepared modem translations from Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan texts.

Question 5.
Explain the structural and sculptural features of the Sanchi Stupa. (C.B.S.E. 2015 (D))
Answer:
Sanchi Stupa is considered among the best-preserved monuments of the time. It is one of the most important centre of early Buddhism.

The Structure of Stupas

The Stupa is a Sanskrit word meaning a heap. It is a simple semi-circular mound of earth. Later on, it was also called as anda. Slowly and steadily, its structure became complex because an attempt was made to balance the round and square shapes. Above the anda, it had the harmonica, a balcony-like structure. This balcony represented the abode of the gods. Near the harmonica, was a mast called the Yashti. It was often surmounted by a Chhatri or an umbrella. Around the mound, there was a railing.

It separated the sacred place from the secular world. The Stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut have stone railings. This railing was like bamboo or wooden fence. It had four gateways, which were richly carved and installed in four cardinal points. The worshippers mostly entered through the eastern gateway. They walked around the mound in a clockwise direction keeping the mound on right imitating the sun’s course through the sky.

The Sculpture of Sanchi Stupa

The sculpture depicts a rural scene, with thatched huts and trees. The sculpture at Sanchi identifies it as a scene from the Vessantara Jataka. This is a story about a generous prince who gave away everything to a Brahmana and went to live in the forest with his wife and children. Early sculptors did not show Buddha in human form but as symbols.

• The empty seat was meant to indicate the meditation of the Buddha.
• The stupa was meant to represent the mahaparinibbana.
• Another symbol was the wheel, which indicated the first sermon of the Buddha, delivered at Sarnath.

Some of the sculptures at Sanchi were not directly inspired by Buddhist ideas. These include beautiful women swinging from the edge of the gateway, holding onto a tree. According to a popular belief, she is a representation of Shalabhanjika in Sanskrit.

This woman’s touch caused trees to flower and bear fruit. This auspicious symbol was used for the decoration of the stupa. Shalabhanjika motif suggests that many people who turned to Buddhism enriched it with their own pre-Buddhist and non-Buddhist beliefs, practices, and ideas. At Sanchi Stupa, many animals are carved into lively scenes derived from Jataka tales. These animals have human attributes. For example, an elephant denotes strength and wisdom.

The motif of Gajalakshmi or Maya-a a woman surrounded by lotuses and elephants sprinkling water on her as if performing abhisheka. She is regarded as the goddess of fortune. Other motifs include that of serpent worship derived from other popular traditions.

Question 6.
How did Sutta-Pitaka reconstruct the philosophy of ‘ Buddhism? Mention about Buddhist Tipitaka. (C.B.S.E. 2015 (O.D.))
Answer:
Sutta Pitaka is an important text of Buddhism. The Buddha’s teachings have been reconstructed from the stories found mainly in the Sutta Pitaka. Although few stories describe his miraculous powers, others suggest that the Buddha tried to convince people through reason and persuasion rather than through displays of supernatural power. For example, when a grief-stricken woman whose child had died came to Buddha.

He gently convinced her about the inevitability of death rather than bring her back to life. These stories were narrated in the language spoken by ordinary people so that these could be easily understood. According to Buddhist philosophy, the world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing; it is also soulless (anatta) as there is nothing permanent or eternal in it. Within this transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence.

Humans can rise above the worldly troubles between severe penance and self-indulgence.

Buddha regarded the social world as the creation of humans rather than of divine origin. He advised kings and chapatis to be humane and ethical. Social relations can be transformed at the individual level.

The Buddha emphasized individual agency and righteous action as a means to escape from the cycle of birth and rebirth and attain self-realization and Nibbana, to remove ego and desire and end the cycle of suffering and resource the world.

Buddha used to give teachings through debate and discussion. Men, women, and children attended these discussions and discussed what they heard. None of his teachings were written down during his lifetime. After his death, his followers called a council of elders at Vaishali. This council compiled all of his teachings.

These compilations were known as Tripitaka which literally means the three baskets to hold different types of texts. Firstly they were transmitted orally and then written and classified according to their subject matter and length.

Tripitaka or Tipitaka: Threepitakas are included in Tripitaka – Vinay Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.

• Vinaya Pitaka is the collection of rules and regulations for those who joined the Sangha or monastic order.
• Buddha’s teachings were included in Sutta Pitaka.
• Philosophical matters are dealt with in Abhidhamma Pitaka.

Each Pitaka consists of many individual texts. Later on, Buddhist scholars wrote commentaries on these texts.

Thinkers, Beliefs, and Buildings Important Extra Questions HOTS

Question 1.
Distinguish between fatalists and materialists.
Answer:
Fatalists belonged to the Ajivika tradition. According to them, everything in life was pre-destined and could not be changed. Pleasure and pain cannot be changed in the course of life. They can neither be lessened nor increased. On the other hand, the materialists belonged to the Lokayat tradition. They considered the talk of gifts and donations as a doctrine of fools. They considered all such things as an empty lie. So, they did not believe in alms, sacrifice, or offerings. They wanted to enjoy life to the maximum and had no belief in the next world.

Question 2.
According to Buddhist philosophy, what is this world?
Answer:
According to Buddhist philosophy, the world is transient. It is constantly changing. It is soulless. It has nothing permanent and eternal. It is mortal.

Question 3.
According to the Buddhist tradition, what is the meaning of Nirvana?
Answer:
According to the Buddhist tradition, Nirvana means an escape from the cycle of birth and rebirth. It means attainment of self-realization. Literally, it signifies the extinguishing of ego and desire. It means the end of the cycle of suffering for those who renounce the world.

Question 4.
Who were Chaityas?
Answer:
The word ‘Chaitya’ has been derived from the word ‘Chita’. The Hindi word ‘Chita’ meant a funeral pyre and by extension a funerary mound. In the Buddhist literature, Chaityas were those sacred places that were associated with the life of Buddha. For example, the Buddhists consider Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, and Kushinagar as the Chaityas.

Question 5.
List any two points of difference between Mahayana and Hinayana.
Answer:

1. Hinayana was the traditional form of Buddhism whereas Mahayana was its modern form.
2. The Hinayana tradition followed the path of old, respected teachers. That is why it was called Theravada. However, Mahayana had a new way of thinking.
3. Literally, the Mahayana meant the ‘great vehicle’ whereas the Hinayana meant the ‘lesser vehicle’.

Question 6.
What new questions the philosophers of Vedic tradition and outside were thinking in the 6th century B.C.E.?
Or
Explain the importance of new questions and debates that began from the sixth century B.C.E. regarding Vedic traditions and practices of sacrifices. (C.B.S.E. 2008 (O.D.))
Answer:
The Upanishads are the texts of the Vedic tradition. They are the store-houses of many new ideas. They show that the people were curious to know the meaning of life. They were also eager to know about the possibility of life after death and rebirth. The issues of rebirth and the past deeds were hotly debated.

All the Vedic thinkers were concerned to understand and express the nature of the ultimate reality. A few thinkers outside the Vedic tradition were also raising the question of whether the ultimate reality was single or plural. The people had also started speculating the significance of the sacrificial tradition. Hence, there was an emergence of a thoughtful environment.

Question 7.
What was the method of the symbol of Buddha sculptures? Why was it difficult to understand these symbols?
Answer:
Many early sculptors showed the presence of Buddha through symbols instead of showing him in the human form. For example, the empty seat became the symbol of the meditation of Buddha. The symbol of the wheel was also used quite frequently.

This symbol stood for the first sermon of the Buddha, delivered at Sarnath. Actually, such sculptures cannot be understood very easily. For example, the tree does not stand just for a tree but it symbolizes an event in the life of the Buddha. To understand such symbols, it is necessary for historians to understand the traditions of those who produced these works of art.

Question 8.
Many rituals, religious beliefs and practices were not recorded in a permanently visible form as monuments or sculptures or even paintings.” Critically examine the statement. (C.B.S.E. 2012 (O.D.))
Answer:
Many rituals, religious beliefs, and practices were not recorded in a permanent, visible form as monuments or sculptures, or even paintings. These included daily practices, as well as those associated with special occasions. Many communities and people may not have felt the need for keeping lasting records, even as they may have had vibrant traditions of religious activities and philosophical ideas.

Actually, people do like to preserve or record those things which are visible. They don’t want to record those things which are not visible and that’s why rituals and religious beliefs and even practices remain no more with the passage of time.

Question 9.
“The notion of a savior was not unique to Buddhism.” Comment. (C.B.S.E. 2012 (O.D.))
Answer:
The notion of a savior was not unique to Buddhism. We find the same ideas being developed in different ways within a tradition that we now consider a part of Hinduism. In the case of Vaishnavism, cults developed around the various avatars or incarnations of the deity.

Ten avatars were recognized within the tradition. These were forms that the deity was believed to have assumed to save the world whenever it was threatened by disorder and destruction by evil forces. It is likely that different avatars were popular in different parts of the country. Recognizing each of these local deities as a form of Vishnu was one way of creating a mere unified religious tradition.

Question 10.
Is it easy to understand visual traditions? Which methods were used by European scholars to understand our visual traditions?
Or
Why did the 19th-century European scholars find it difficult to understand the Indian sculpture in ancient times? How did they try to solve the problem? (C.B.S.E. 2008 (O.D.))
Answer:
We have had a glimpse of rich visual traditions, stone architectures, sculptures, and paintings. A lot has been destroyed and lost over the centuries. Even then what remains has been preserved and conveys a sense of the visions of the artists who created these spectacular works. But it is not easy to understand what they wanted to convey. We cannot completely understand the fact that what these images meant to people who saw them and worshipped them.

Efforts of the European Scholars: When the European scholars saw a few sculptures of Gods and Goddesses in the 19th century, they were not been able to understand the background and importance of these sculptures. Sometimes they were horrified by grotesque figures with multiple arms and heads or with a combination of human and animal forms.
Many times they even hated these sculptures. But still, they made the following efforts to understand those grotesque figures:

Comparison with Greek Tradition: Scholars compared these figures with a familiar tradition. This tradition was the art tradition of ancient Greece. While they hardly considered Indian sculptures as superior like Greek sculptures, even then they were encouraged by the discovered images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas. These sculptures were found mainly from northern western cities like Taxila and Peshawar. These regions were ruled over by Indo-Greek rulers in the second-century H.C.F. These sculptures were closest to Greek statues. Because these scholars were very much influenced by Greek art of sculptures, that is why they considered the statues of Buddha and Bodhisattvas as the best
examples of Indian art.

From Familiar to make Sense of Unfamiliar:

In order to understand this art, they chose a very simple method and that was to understand unfamiliar
things on the basis of familiar things.

Art historians generally collect information from written texts to understand the context and importance of any statue. While this is certainly a far more effective strategy than comparing Indian images with Greek status. But it was not always easy to use. One of the most interesting examples of this is the famous sculpture along a huge rock surface in Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu).

A vivid description of any story is given in the statues. But which story is it? Art historians search through Puranas to it. But still they contradictory views. are of the view that depicts the descent of the Ganga river. They are of the view that the natural cleft through the center of the rock surface might represent the river. This story is narrated in epics and Puranas. Other scholars are of the view that it represents a story of Arjuna doing penance on the banks of the river to acquire arms. Its description is given in Mahabharata. They are
pointing to the central figure of an ascetic.

Thinkers, Beliefs, and Buildings Important Extra Questions Source-Based

Read the following passages and answer the questions that follow :
Question 1.
A Prayer to Agni

Here are two verses from the Rigveda invoking Agni, the god of fire, often identified with the sacrificial fire, into which offerings were made so as to reach the other deities:
Bring, O strong one, this sacrifice of ours to the gods, O wise one, as a liberal giver. Bestow on us, O priest, abundant food. Agni, obtain, by sacrificing, mighty wealth for us. Procure, O Agni. forever to him who prays to
you (the gift of nourishment, the wonderful cow. May a son be ours, offspring that continues our line

Verses such as these were composed in a special kind of Sanskrit, known as Vedic Sanskrit. They were taught orally to men belonging to priestly families.
(i) From where have these verses been taken? Who has been invoked in them?
Answer:
These verses have been taken from the Rigveda. They have invoked the god of Agni.

(ii) What has the god of Agni been prayed for?
Answer:
The following prayers have been made to the god of Agni :
(a) To take the sacrifice to the gods.
(b) To give blessings liberally.
(c) To seek abundant food in life.
(d) To seek wealth and prosperity.
(e) To be blessed with a son and a cow.
(f) To seek proper nourishment.

(iii) What is Rigveda? What was Vedic culture?
Answer:
The Rigveda describes the early Vedic tradition. It was compiled between C. 1500 and 1000 B.C.E. It has hymns in praise of Agni, Indra, and Soma. These hymns were sung when Yajnas were performed and sacrifices were made to pray for cattle, sons, good health, and long life.

(iv) With the passage of time, what changes came in the tradition of Yajna (Sacrifice)?
Answer:
Earlier sacrifices were performed collectively. But later on, they were performed by the heads of households who prayed for the well-being of all the members of the family. The kings and the rich landlords performed elaborate sacrifices such as the Rajasua and Ashvamedha.

Question 2.
Verses from the Upanishads

Here are two verses from the Chhandogya Upanishad, a text composed in Sanskrit c. sixth Century B.C.E. :

The Nature of the Self

This self of mine within the heart is smaller than paddy or barley or mustard or millet or the kernel of a seed of millet. This self of mine within the heart is greater than the earth, greater than the intermediate space, greater than heaven, greater than these worlds.

The True Sacrifice
This one (the wind) that blows, this is surely a sacrifice.
While moving, it sanctifies all this; therefore it is indeed a sacrifice.
(i) From where have these verses been taken? When were they composed?
Answer:
These verses have been taken from a Sanskrit book entitled “Chhandogya Upanishad”. They were composed in sixth-century B.C.E.

(ii) In these verses, what has been said about the nature of the soul and true Yajna?
Answer:
According to these verses, the nature of the soul is strange. It resides in the human heart. It is smaller than paddy or barley or a mustard seed. But in reality, it is greater than the earth, bigger than space, and larger than heaven.
Similarly, these verses tell us that the blowing of wind is a true Yajna. When the wind blows, it sanctifies everyone. A Yajna also purifies. So the wind is a true Yajna.

(iii) What do we know from the ideology given in the Upanishads?
Answer:
The ideology of the Upanishads is that a man’s rebirth depends on his past actions. He always wants to know the ultimate reality. Besides, there were many people who realized the significance of the sacrificial tradition.

Question 3.
Fatalists and Materialists

Here is an excerpt from the Sutta Pitaka, describing a conversation between king Ajatasattu, the ruler of Magadha, and the Buddha :

On one occasion King Ajatasattu visited the Buddha and described what another teacher, named Makkhali Gosala, had told him:

“Though the wise should hope, by this virtue …. by this penance I will gain karma… and the fool should by the same means hope to gradually rid himself of his karma, neither of them can do it. Pleasure and pain, measured out as they were, cannot be altered in the course of samsara (transmigration). It can neither be lessened nor increased … just as a ball of string will when thrown unwind to its full length, so fool and wise alike will take their course and make an end of sorrow.”

And this is what a philosopher named Ajita Kesakambalin taught:

“There is no such thing, O king, as alms or sacrifice, or offerings… there is no such thing as this world or the next …

A human being is made up of four elements. When he dies the earthy in him returns to the earth, the fluid to water, the heat to fire, the windy to air, and his senses pass into space…

The talk of gifts is a doctrine of fools, an empty lie … fools and wise alike are cut off and perish. They do not survive after death.”

The first teacher belonged to the tradition of the Ajivikas. They have often been described as fatalists; those who believe that everything is predetermined. The second teacher belonged to the tradition of the Lokayatas, usually described as materialists. Texts from these traditions have not survived, so we know about them only from the works of other traditions.
(i) From where has this excerpt been taken? What does it describe?
Answer:
This excerpt has been taken from the ‘Sutta Pitaka’: It describes a conversation between Ajatasattu, the ruler of Magadha, and the Buddha.

(ii) What were the views of Makkhali Gosala about joy and sorrow?
Answer:
According to Makkhali Gosala, pleasure and pain are a part of life. They cannot be altered in the course of human or worldly life. They can neither be lessened nor increased.

(iii) What sermon had Ajita Kesakambalin given to Ajatashatru ?
Answer:
Ajita Kesakambalin told Ajatashatru that there is no such thing as alms or sacrifice or offerings. There is also no such thing as this world or that world. A human being is made up of four elements. When he dies, he mixes with the earth. The fluid in him goes to the water and the heat goes to the fire. The windy part of the body goes to the air. After death, his senses pass into space. No one can survive death. Whether a fool or a wise – all have to die one day.

(iv) To which tradition has associated the relationship between the Fatalists and the Materialists?
Answer:
The Fatalists belong to the Ajivika tradition whereas the materialists belong to the tradition of the Lokayatas. The Fatalists believe that everything is pre-destined but not much is known about the materialists.

Question 4.
The World Beyond the Palace

Just as the Buddha’s teachings were compiled by his followers, the teachings of Mahavira were also recorded by his disciples. These were often in the form of stories, which could appeal to ordinary people. Here is one example, from a Prakrit text known as the Uttaradhyayana Sutta, describing how a queen named Kamalavati tried to persuade her husband to renounce the world.

If the whole world and all its treasures were yours, you would not be satisfied, nor would all this be able to save you. When you die, 0 kings and leave all things behind, dhamma alone, and nothing else will save you. As a bird dislikes the cage, so do I dislike (the world). I shall live as a nun without offspring, without desire, without the love of gain, and without hatred … Those who have enjoyed pleasures and renounced them, move about like the wind and go wherever they please, unchecked like birds in their flight…

Leave your large kingdom … abandon what pleases the senses, be without attachment and property, then practice severe penance, being firm of energy…
(i) Name the book from which this excerpt has been taken. In which language has the book been written?
Answer:
This excerpt has been taken from the book ‘Uttaradhyayana Sutta’. It was written in the Prakrit language.

(ii) What are things a queen named Kamalavati said to persuade the king to renounce the world?
Answer:
To persuade her husband to renounce the world, Kamalavati said the following things:
(a) The worldly treasures cannot make a man feel satisfied. They can also not save anyone.
(b) A man leaves all things behind after his death.
(c) Only dhamma (religion) and nothing else, can save a man.
(d) A bird does not like its cage. Similarly, a man should not like this world.
(e) By renouncing pleasures, a man can become as free as the wind or a bird. He can go wherever he pleases.

(iii) Discuss the main principles of Jainism
Answer:
The main principles of Jainism are :
(a) The entire world is animated. Even stones, rocks, and water have life.
(b) No one should cause any injury to anyone. Non-injury to human beings, animals, plants
and insects is the central principle of Jainism.
(c) The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through Karma. If one has to get rid of the cycle of Karma, he must adopt asceticism and penance.
(d) All should take five vows: to abstain from killing or violence, to speak the truth, to avoid stealing, to observe celibacy, and to discard the possession of the property.

Question 5.
Buddhism in Practice

This is an excerpt from the Sutta Pitaka, and contains the advice given by the Buddha to a wealthy householder named Sigala :

In five ways should a master look after his servants and employees….by assigning them to work according to their strength, by supplying them with food and wages, by tending them in sickness; by sharing delicacies with them and by granting leave at times…

In five ways should the clansmen look after the needs of samanas (those who have renounced the world) and Brahmanas: by affection in act and speech and mind, by keeping open house to them and supplying their worldly needs.

There are similar instructions to Sigala about how to behave with his parents, teacher, and wife.
(i) From where has this excerpt been taken? In it, who is being advised by the Buddha?
Answer:
This excerpt has been taken from ‘Sutta Pitaka’. Herein the Buddha is giving advice to Sigala, a wealthy householder.

(ii) According to Buddha, how should a master look after his servants and employees in the five ways?
Answer:
According to Buddha, a master should look after his servants and employees in the following five manners :
(a) By assigning them to work according to their capacity and strength.
(b) By supplying them with food and wages.
(c) By serving them during their sickness.
(d) By sharing delicacies with them.
(e) By granting leave at times.

(iii) How should the clansmen look after the needs of Samanas and the Brahmanas?
Answer:
The clansmen should look after the needs of Samanas (those who have renounced the world i.e. tyagis) and Brahmanas in the following manner:
(a) By showing love in acts.
(b) By showing affection in speech.
(c) By showing regard in mind.
(d) By keeping the doors open for them.
(e) By fulfilling their worldly needs.

Question 6.
The Therigatha

This unique Buddhist text, part of the Sutta Pitaka, is a collection of verses composed by bhikkhunis. It provides an insight into women’s social and spiritual experiences. Punna, a dasi or slave woman, went to the river each morning to fetch water for her master’s household. There she would daily see a Brahmana performing bathing rituals. One morning she spoke to him. The following are ♦ verses composed by Punna, recording her conversation with the Brahmana :

I am a water carrier :
Even in the cold
I have always gone down to the water
frightened of punishment
Or the angry words of high-class women.
So what are you afraid of Brahmana,
That makes you go down to the water (Though) your limbs shake with the bitter cold?

The Brahmana replied :
I am doing good to prevent evil; anyone young or old who has done something bad is freed by washing in water.
Punna said :
Whoever told you
You are freed from evil by washing in the water ?…
In that case, all the frogs and turtles Would go to heaven, and so would the water snakes and crocodiles!
(Instead) Don’t do that thing, the fear of which leads you to the water.
Stop now Brahmana!
Save your skin from the cold …
(i) From where has this excerpt been taken? What has been compiled in it?
Answer:

(ii) Who was Punna? Which ritual of the Brahmana was satirized by her?
Answer:
This excerpt has been taken from ‘Sutta Pitaka’. This Buddhist text has a collection of verses composed by bhikkhunis.

(iii) What did she ask from the Brahmana? What was the reply of the Brahmana?
Answer:
Punna was a dasi or a slave. Every day she went to the river in the morning. She brought water for her master’s household. She satirized the ritual of bath performed by a Brahamana.

(iv) How did she advise the Brahmana not to do any bad deed?
Answer:
Punna told the Brahmana that a bath in water cannot make anyone good and pious. Had it been so, all the frogs, crocodiles, and turtles would have gone to heaven. She advised the Brahmana to save himself from the fear that was threatening him.

Question 7.
Rules for Monks and Nuns

These are some of the rules laid down in the Vinaya Pitaka:

When a new felt (blanket/rug) has been made by a bhikkhu, it is to be kept for (at least) six years. If after less than six years he should have another new felt (blanket/rug) made regardless of whether or not he has disposed of the first, then-unless he has been authorized by the bhikkhus-it is to be forfeited and confessed.

In case a bhikkhu arriving at a family residence is presented with cakes or cooked grain-meal, he may accept two or three bowlfuls if he so desires. If he should accept more than that, it is to be confessed. Having accepted the two or three bowlfuls and having taken them from there, he is to share them among the bhikkhus. This is the proper course here.

Should any bhikkhu, having set out bedding in I a lodging belonging to the sangha or having I had it set out-and then on departing neither. put it away nor have it put away or should he go without taking leave, it is to be confessed.

(i) Name any two Buddhist texts in which the rules, for the monks have been laid down.
Answer:
The rules for Buddhist monks and nuns were laid
down in the ‘Vinaya Pitaka! and ‘Sutta Pitaka’.

(ii) Why were these rules framed?
Answer:
Rules were made for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis and they were supposed to live a pure life because they used to teach the people. A teacher must lead the people by becoming a role model for the people.

(iii) What was the sangha? Explain.
Answer:
The followers of Buddhism started to grow rapidly. That is why Buddha founded an organization of monks who too became teachers of dhamma. This organization was known as ‘Sangha’.

(iv) State any three rules mentioned in the passage, for the bhikkhus. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (O.D.))
Answer:
(a) When a bhikkhu made a new blanket, he must keep it for at least 6 years, before the blanket was taken away from him. This blanket was forfeited even though he had disposed of his first blanket.
(b) Every bhikkhu belonging to a Sangha had to set out his bedding in a lodging. It was considered a crime not to set out the bedding before departure.
(c) In case a bhikkhu arriving at a family residence is presented with cakes or cooked grain meal, he may accept two or three bowlfuls if he so desires.

Question 8.
Why were Stupas Built?

This is an excerpt from the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, part of the Sutta Pitaka :

As the Buddha lay dying, Ananda asked him: “What are we to do Lord, with the remains of the Tathagata (another name for the Buddha ?”

The Buddha replied: “Hinder not yourselves Ananda by honoring the remains of the Tathagata. Be zealous, be intent on your own good.”

But when pressed further, the Buddha said: “At the four crossroads they should erect a stupa (Pali for stupa) to the Tathagata. And whosoever shall there place garlands or perfume …. or make a salutation there, or become in its presence calm of heart, that shall long be to them for a profit and joy.”
(i) From which chapter has this excerpt been taken? It is a part of which book?
Answer:
This excerpt has been taken from the ‘Mahaparinibbana Sutta’. It was a part of the “Sutta Pitaka.”

(ii) What are the Stupas? Who advised Ananda to build the Stupa?
Answer:
The Stupas were the sacred places. They preserved the relics of the Buddha such as his bodily remains or the objects used by him. All these things were buried in the stupas.

(iii) Who was Tathagata? What had he told about the importance of the Stupa?
Answer:
Tathagata was another name for the Buddha. He told Ananda that the honor of his worldly remains was not important. He laid stress on the importance of one’s good deeds. The stupas should be erected on the holy places. If anybody placed garlands or perfume or saluted them, he will not only get peace of mind but also profit and joy.

(iv) Name any three places where the Stupas have been built.
Answer:
The stupas were built in many places. The most important stupas existed at Bharhut, Sanchi, and Sarnath.

Here we are providing 1 Mark Questions for History Class 12 Chapter 15 Framing the Constitution: The Beginning of a New Era are the best resource for students which helps in class 12 board exams.

One Mark Questions for History Class 12 Chapter 15 Framing the Constitution: The Beginning of a New Era

Question 1.
When was the Indian Constitution framed?
Answer:
Between 9 Dec. 1946 and 26 Nov. 1949 A.D.

Question 2.
Who was the President of the Constituent assembly?
Answer:
Dr. Rajendra Prasad.

Question 3.
Who was the Chairman of Drafting Committee?
Answer:
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

Question 4.
How many ttiembers of the Constituent Assembly were there?
Answer:
389.

Question 5.
How many members remained in the Constituent Assembly after the partition of India?
Answer:
299.

Question 6.
Who gave objective resolution of the Constituent Assembly?
Answer:
Jawaharlal Nehru.

Question 7.
Under whose recommendation, the Constituent Assembly was formed?
Answer:
Under the recommendation of the Cabinet Mission.

Question 8.
Who was the Constitutional Advisor of the Government of India?
Answer:
B.N. Rau.

Question 9.
Who was the Chief Draughtsman of the Indian Constitution?
Answer:
S.N. Mukherjee.

Question 10.
Name the official language of India.
Answer:
Hindi.

Question 11.
When was the Indian Constitution framed ? When was it enforced ?
Answer:
The Indian Constitution was framed from December, 1946 to November, 1949 and was enforced on 26 January 1950.

Question 12.
Discuss the significance of the Indian Constitution. Give any two points.
Answer:
(i) It wanted to heal the wounds of the past.
(ii) It enabled people belonging to different classes, castes and communities to share a new political experience by coming together to each other.
(iii) It strengthened democratic institutions in the country.

Question 13.
What were the demands of low-caste people and linguistic minorities at the time of making the Indian Constitution ?
Answer:
(i) The low-caste people demanded an end to ill-treatment by the upper-caste people.
(ii) They also demanded reservation of separate seats, on the basis of their population, in legislatures, government departments and local bodies.
(iii) The linguistic minorities demanded freedom of speech in their respective mother-tongue. They also demanded redistribution of provinces on linguistic basis.

Question 14.
Name any six leaders who played an important role in the Constituent Assembly.
Answer:
(i) Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru
(ii) Sardar Patel
(iii) Dr. Rajendra Prasad
(iv) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
(v) K.M. Munshi
(vi) Alladi Krishnaswami Aiyar

Question 15.
Who was the President of the Constituent Assembly ? Who was the Chairman of its Drafting Committee ?
Answer:
(i) Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the President of the Constituent Assembly.
(ii) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly.

Question 16.
In the 19th century, what efforts were made by the social reformers for social justice and what efforts were made by communists and socialists for economic justice ? Give one point each.
Answer:
(i) The social reformers opposed child- marriage and supported widow-remarriage.
(ii) The communists and the socialists brought all labourers and peasants together. In other words, they organised them.

Question 17.
What provisions were made in the Constitution to make the Centre more strong ? Give any three arguments.
Answer:
(i) More subjects were included in the union list.
(ii) The Union Government has control over many minerals and important industries.
(iii) Article 356 empowers the centre to take over the state administration on the recommendation of the Governor.

Question 18.
What argument was given against Hindi being made a national language ?
Answer:
The people in South India were strongly opposed to Hindi. They viewed every propaganda for Hindi as cutting the very root of the provincial languages.

Question 19.
Which two features of the Indian Constitution had substantial agreement ?
Answer:
(i) Granting the right to vote to every adult citizen of India. It was called the Universal Adult Franchise.
(ii) Emphasis on secularism. It is the soul of the Indian Constitution.

Question 20.
In what way was the right of vote to every adult Indian a unique provision ?
Answer:
The right of vote to every adult citizen of India is a unique feature of the Indian Constitution. The people in the United States and the United Kingdom got this right after a long struggle. But the Indians got it during the framing of the Constitution.

Question 21.
What Fundamental Rights enshrined in the Indian Constitution ensure religious freedom ?
Answer:
They are as follows :
(i) Right to Equality
(ii) Right to Freedom of Religion
(iii) Cultural and Educational Rights.

Question 22.
Mention any two arguments given by Balakrishna Sharma for greater power to the Centre. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (O.D.))
Answer:
Bal Krishna Sharma stated that only a strong centre can make plans for the interest of the country, can provide requisite resources, can establish proper order and can save the country from foreign invasion.

Question 23.
Why is ‘Objectives Resolution5 of Nehru considered a momentous resolution ? Give any two reasons. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (D.))
Answer:
(i) It proclaimed India as an ‘Independent, Sovereign Republic’.
(ii) It guaranteed its citizens justice, equality and freedom.

Question 24.
How were the discussions in the Constituent Assembly influenced by the opinions expressed by the public ? State any two examples. (C.B.S.E. 2013 (O.D.))
Answer:
(i) Calcutta based All India Varnashrama Swarajya Sangh suggested that our Constitution should enshrine principles as given in ancient Hindu books.
(ii) Some people proposed the abattoirs should be closed and slaughter should be prohibited.

Question 25.
Mention how the provisions of the Government of India Act, 1935 were incorporated in the Indian Constitution by the Assembly members.
(C.B.S.E. 2013 (O.D.))
Answer:
Government of India Act, 1935 had a provision of strong and united centre. This provision was incorporated in the Indian Constitution by the Assembly members and they gave a very strong centre to the country.

 

Here we are providing 1 Mark Questions for History Class 12 Chapter 14 Understanding Partition: Politics, Memories, Experiences are the best resource for students which helps in class 12 board exams.

One Mark Questions for History Class 12 Chapter 14 Understanding Partition: Politics, Memories, Experiences

Question 1.
When did India get independence?
Answer:
On 15th August, 1947 A.D.

Question 2.
How many people died during the partition of India?
Answer:
Scholars believe that they could be within the range of 200,000 to 500,000.

Question 3.
How many people migrated during the partition of India?
Answer:
Around 15 million people.

Question 4.
When did the British give separate Electorate to Muslims?
Answer:
In 1909 through Minto-Morley reforms.

Question 5.
What was the major objective of Arya Samaj?
Answer:
To revive Vedic learning and combine it with modern eduction in the sciences.

Question 6.
When and between whom the Lucknow Pact was made?
Answer:
Between Congress and Muslim League in 1916 A.D.

Question 7.
When were elections held in India for the provincial legislatures?
Answer:
In 1937 A.D.

Question 8.
In how many provinces, Congress made government in 1937?
Answer:
In seven provinces.

Question 9.
Why did congress reject Muslim League’s offer to form a joint government in the United Province?
Answer:
Because it had absolute majority over there.

Question 10.
When did Muslim League demand Pakistan?
Answer:
In 1940.

Question 11.
Who wrote ‘Sare Jahan Se Achha Hindustan Hamara?
Answer:
Urdu Poet Mahammad Iqbal.

Question 12.
When was Cabinet Mission sent to India by the British government?
Answer:
In March 1946.

Question 13.
When did Muslim League elaborate ‘Direct Action Day’?
Answer:
On 16th August, 1946.

Question 14.
During the partition of India, how did the survivors describe the events of 1947 ?
Answer:
The survivors used the following words to describe partition of the country in 1947 :
(i) Maashal-la (Martial Law)
(ii) Mara-mari (Killings)
(iii) Raula (Tumult)
(iv) Hullar (Disturbance or Uproar).

Question 15.
Why did the Congress not accent the proposal to form a joint government with the Muslim League in the United Provinces ? Give any two reasons. ,
Answer:
(i) The Congress had won an absolute majority in the province.
(ii) The Muslim League supported Landlordism whereas the Congress wanted to abolish it.

Question 16.
What did the Urdu poet Mohammad Iqbal meant by ‘North West Indian Muslim State’?
Answer:
Addressing a meeting of the Muslim League in 1930, Mohammad Iqbal visualised the need for a ‘North West Indian Muslim State’. He did not stress on emergence of a new state. He only wanted reorganisation of Muslim-majority areas in north-western India. In fact, he wanted an autonomous state within the Indian federation.

Question 17.
Why and when was the Cabinet Mission sent to India ?
Answer:
The Cabinet Mission was sent to India in 1946 to fulfil the following objectives:
(i) It wanted to examine the demands made by the Muslim League.
(ii) It was to suggest a suitable political framework for an independent India.

Question 18.
On the basis of any two points, tell the significance of the oral sources of history.
Answer:
(i) It helps us to grasp experiences and memories.
(ii) It enables the historians to give a beautiful and vivid description of events.

Question 19.
On which two demands of Jinnah, the discussions about the transfer of power broke down ?
Answer:
(i) Jinnah sticked on the demand that Muslim members of the Executive Council must be elected by the Muslim League.
(ii) He also wanted to have a system of veto in the council on communal basis.

Here we are providing 1 Mark Questions for History Class 12 Chapter 13 Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement: Civil Disobedience and Beyond are the best resource for students which helps in class 12 board exams.

One Mark Questions for History Class 12 Chapter 13 Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement: Civil Disobedience and Beyond

Question 1.
When and from where Mahatma Gandhi came back to India?
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi came back to India from South Africa in 1915 A.D.

Question 2.
When was Swadeshi movement started in India and who started it?
Answer:
During 1905-1907 by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai and Bipin Chandra Pal.

Question 3.
Who was the political mentor of Mahatma Gandhi?
Answer:
Gopal Krishna Gokhale.

Question 4.
Where was Mahatma Gandhi’s first public apperance when he came back from South Africa?
Answer:
At the opening of the Banaras Hindu University in Feb. 1916.

Question 5.
Which three movements Gandhi started before joining active politics ?
Answer:
Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad.

Question 6.
Which Satyagraha Gandhi announced after the passing of Rowlatt Act?
Answer:
Rawlatt Satyagraha.

Question 7.
When was Non-Cooperation started?
Answer:
In January 1921.

Question 8.
Why did Mahatma Gandhi withdraw Non-Cooperation movement?
Answer:
Due to violence occurred at Chauri Chaura in U.P.

Question 9.
When and why was Mahatma Gandhi arrested after the withdrawal of NonCooperation movement?
Answer:
In March 1922 on the charges of Sedition.

Question 10.
Which symbols Mahatma Gandhi used during the freedom struggle?
Answer:
Dhoti and Charkha.

Question 11.
When and where was the revolution of Poorna Swaraj adopted?
Answer:
At Lahore session of Congress in 1929 A.D.

Question 12.
When was Dandi March started?
Answer:
On 12th March 1930.

Question 13.
When was Quit India movement launched?
Answer:
In August 1942 A.D.

Question 14.
Distinguish between the policies of moderates and Assertive Nationalists.
Answer:
The moderates were peace-loving who preferred a gradual and persuasive approach towards the British. On the other hand, the assertive nationalists advocated strong opposition to the British Rule in India and wanted to oust the foreign rule by all means.

Question 15.
On what two things did the Satyagraha emphasise ?
Answer:
(i) Belief in the power of truth.
(ii) Search for truth and non-violent protest.

Question 16.
At which three places Gandhiji initiated his Satyagraha after his return from South Africa ? When were these movements launched ?
Answer:
(i) In Champaran region of Bihar (1916)
(ii) In Kheda District of Gujarat (1917)
(iii) In Ahmedabad of Gujarat (1918).

Question 17.
Why did Mahatma Gandhi want to adopt the policy of Non-Cooperation against the British in India ?
Answer:
Gandhiji believed that the British rule in India depended on the cooperation of the local people. He felt that the foreign rule still existed due to the cooperation of a few natives. Mahatma Gandhi launched the policy of Non-Cooperation so that he may end the foreign rule and introduce self-rule.

Question 18.
When and where was the Policy of Non-Cooperation approved ?
Answer:
The Indian National Congress approved the programme of Non-Cooperation in 1920 at its Nagpur Session.

Question 19.
Name any two moderate leaders. How were they associated with Gandhiji ?
Answer:
Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Mohammad Ali Jinnah were two prominent moderate leaders. Gopal Krishna Gokhale was the acknowledged political mentor of Gandhiji and Mohammad Ali Jinnah and was a lawyer, like Gandhiji, in Gujarat.

Question 20.
Which events marked out Gandhiji as a nationalist and a true national leader ?
Answer:
(i) His initiatives at Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda marked him out as a nationalist who had great sympathy for poor.
(ii) Rowlatt Satyagraha made him a true national leader.

Question 21.
Write the importance of NonCooperation movement from two aspects.
Answer:
(i) This movement was a training for self-rule.
(ii) For the first time, since 1857, the foundation of British rule was shaken.

Question 22.
When and where was ‘Poorna Swaraj’ formally proclaimed ?
Answer:
The demand for Poorna Swaraj was formally proclaimed by Indian National Congress at its Lahore Session in December, 1929. This session was presided over by Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru.

Question 23.
What important decision was taken about ‘Poorna Swaraj’ in the Lahore Session of the Indian National Congress held in December, 1929?
Answer:
In the session of the Indian National Congress held in December, 1929 at Lahore, it was decided to celebrate 26 January, 1930 as the Independence Day. On that day, all the people were to take an oath for complete independence of the country.

Question 24.
With which motive had Gandhiji started his Sabarmati Ashram ?
Answer:
Gandhiji established his Sabarmati Ashram in 1916. He wanted to teach his pupils the path of truth and non-violence. He also taught them to behave in a truthful and non-violent manner and practised his ideology of truth and non-violence in this Ashram.

Question 25.
Why and when did the Simon Commission come to India ?
Answer:
The Simon Commission visited India in 1928 to enquire about the conditions prevailed in India.

Question 26.
Why was the Simon Commission opposed ?
Answer:
The Simon Commission was opposed as it had all members from the white community and had no member from India which was quite insulting to the Indians. So, all the people of India opposed the Simon Commission.

Question 27.
What steps were taken by the government to control Civil Disobedience Movement ?
Answer:
(i) The government put all the important leaders behind the bars. They included Sardar Patel, Dr. Rajinder Prasad and Subhash Chander Bose.
(ii) The Indian National Congress was declared as an illegal organisation.

Question 28.
What do you mean by Movement for Praja Mandals ?
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi wanted to broaden the basis of nationalism in India. So Indian National Congress started a series of Praja Mandals. It promoted the nationalist movement in the princely states and led nationalism to the farthest corners of the country.

Question 29.
When did the communal politics start ?
Answer:
The communal politics started in 1906 C.E. when the Muslim League was established. The British adopted the policy of Divide and Rule to increase the hatred between the Hindus and the Muslims.

Question 30.
Name any four leaders who associated themselves with Gandhiji between 1917 and 1922.
Answer:
(i) Sarojini Naidu
(ii) Vallabh Bhai Patel
(iii) Jawaharlal Nehru
(iv) Subhash Chandra Bose

Question 31.
What was the attitude of the Indian National Congress towards the Second World War ?
Answer:
The Indian National Congress was critical of both Hitler and the Nazis. So it decided to help the British Government during the Second World War on the condition that India would be granted freedom after the end of this war. When the British government refused this demand, all the Congress ministers resigned.

Question 32.
What did Gandhiji seek to obtain for the security of the peasants of Champaran in 1917 ? (C.B.S.E. 2011 (D))
Answer:
Gandhiji went on a fast to provide security to peasants of Champaran in 1917. As a result peasants got freedom to grow crops of their choice.

Question 33.
Why was Salt March notable ? Mention two reasons. (C.B.S.E. 2011 (O.D.))
Answer:
Salt March was notable because of the given below reasons:
(i) It was this event that first brought Mahatma Gandhi to world attention. March was widely covered by the European and American press.
(ii) It was the first nationalist activity in which women participated in large numbers.

Here we are providing Class 12 Geography Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 6 Secondary Activities. Geography Class 12 Important Questions are the best resource for students which helps in class 12 board exams.

Class 12 Geography Chapter 6 Important Extra Questions Secondary Activities

Secondary Activities Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Which is the smallest unit of manufacturing ?
Answer:
Cottage industry.

Question 2.
Where is the Silicon Valley located ?
Answer:
California (U.S.A.).

Question 3.
Give one example of Large Scale Industries.
Answer:
Iron and Steel.

Question 4.
Which industry is called the basic industry ?
Answer:
Iron and Steel.

Question 5.
Give one example of Agro based industries.
Answer:
Sugar Industry.

Question 6.
To which group, does Plastic Industry belong to ?
Answer:
Petro-chemical.

Question 7.
Name an industry of Public Sector.
Answer:
Bokaro Steel plant.

Question 8.
In which town of India, is diamondcutting done ?
Answer:
Surat.

Question 9.
Name the largest Iron and Steel region of U.SA.
Answer:
Great lake region.

Question 10.
Which is the advanced stage of mechanisation ?
Answer:
Automation.

Question 11.
Name major Agro-processing industries.
Answer:
Food processing, sugar, pickles, fruit juices.

Question 12.
Name two forest based industries.
Answer:
Paper and Lac.

Question 13.
What are smokestack industries ?
Answer:
Metallurgical industries.

Question 14.
Which is the more important industrial region of Germany ? (C.B.S.E. 2011)
Answer:
Ruhr.

Secondary Activities Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Which processes help secondary activities ?
Answer:
Secondary activities change the form and value of raw material by the following process :

• manufacturing
• processing
• construction.

Question 2.
Make a list of the processes used in manufacturing.
Answer:

• Modern power
• Modern machinery
• Specialised labour
• Mass production
• Production of standardised products.

Question 3.
Give two examples each of Basic and Consumer industries.
Answer:
Iron and steel, copper industries are basic industries, Tea and soap are consumer industries.

Question 4.
Why Iron and Steel industry is considered a basic industry ?
Answer:
Iron and steel provides base for all other industries, so it is called a basic industry. It is used to make everything from sewing needle to rail sheets, tubes, wires, machines etc.

Question 5.
Explain the main characteristic of professional workers (White collar). (Out side Delhi 2019)
Answer:
White collar workers does clerical workan in an office and draws monthly salaries at a fixed price. They perform managerial work for the organization.

Question 6.
What is a techno-pole ? (Outside Delhi 2019)
Answer:
echno-poles include Science Parks, Science Cities and other High-tech Industrial Complexes.

Question 7.
What is automation ?
Answer:
Where machines, use gadgets to do work, it is called automation. It is without human thinking. It is an advanced stage of mechanisation. These have computer control systems.

Question 8.
What factors have reduced the dependence of industry upon labour ?
Answer:

• Increasing Mechanisation
• Automation
• Flexibility of Industrial processes.

Question 9.
‘Secondary activities add value to natural resources.’ Explain with two examples.
Answer:
Secondary activities add value to natural resources by transforming raw materials into more usable products. Most of the materials from the farm, forest, mine and the sea are transformed into valuable products. Secondary activities, therefore are concerned with manufacturing, processing and construction (infrastructure) industries.

Example:
(i) Cotton in the boll has little use but after it is transformed into yam, it becomes more useful and valuable
(ii) Iron ore, directly from the mines, is practically useless; but after being made into steel gets its value and can be used for making many valuable machines.

Question 10.
What are characteristics of modern manufacturing ? (Imp)
Answer:
Modern manufacturing is characterised by :

• a complex machine technology
• extreme specialisation and division of labour for producing more goods with less efforts,
• vast capital
• large organisations and
• executive bureaucracy.

Question 11.
Describe some common products of household industries. (C.B.S.E. 2011)
Answer:
Some common everyday products produced in this sector of manufacturing include foodstuffs, fabrics, mats, containers, tools, furniture, shoes and figurines from wood lot and forest; shoes, thongs and other articles from leather ; porcelain, pottery and bricks from clays and stones ; jewellery and figurines from jade, ivory, pearls, bronze, gold and silver; and home remedies, paints, dyes, lacquer ware from saps, barks and seeds of plants.

Question 12.
Explain any five characteristics of large scale manufacturing in the world. (Delhi 2019)
Answer:

• This manufacturing involves a huge market, different raw materials specialized workers advanced technology, etc. This type of manufacturing developed in the last 200 years.
• A large proportion of employment in manufacturing industries.
• Large scale industris use power driven heavy machines.
• These industries form the basis of development in developed countries.
• A large number of goods are produced for a bigger market.

Question 13.
What are the characteristics of traditional large scale Industrial regions ? (C.B.S.E. 2014)
Answer:
Traditional Large-Scale Industrial Regions
These are based on heavy industry, often located near coalfields and engaged in metal smelting, heavy engineering, chemical manufacture or textile production. These industries are now known as smokestack industries.

Traditional industrial regions can be recognized by :

• High proportion of employment in manufacturing industry.
• High-density housing, often of inferior type, and poor services.
• Unattractive environment, for example, pollution, waste tips, and so on.
• Problems of unemployment, emigration and derelict land areas caused by closure of factories because of a world-wide fall in demand.

Question 14.
What a techno pole ?
Answer:
Techno-poles. The locational impact of high-tech activities is already emerging in advanced industrialised countries. The most noticeable phenomena is the emergence of new technology-oriented complexes or techno-poles. A techno-pole is a planned development within a concentrated area, for technology innovative, industrial related production. Techno-poles include science or technology parks, science cities, and other high-tech industrial complexes.

Question 15.
Write a short note on cotton textile industries of the world,
Answer:
Textile Industries. These are labourintensive industries that require less-skilled, low-cost workers. The production steps include spinning of fibre, weaving of yam, and finishing of fabric. Manufacturing is concentrated in countries where the main raw material-cotton-is grown. China, India, Pakistan, USA and Uzbekistan grow and produce more than half of the world’s cotton and cotton textiles.

The UK, Northwest Europe and Japan are also leading manufacturers depending on imported fibre and yarn. Europe alone accounts for nearly half of the world cotton imports. The industry has now declined in many countries but the main centres still retain some of the finishing trades. The future of the industry is bright in Asian countries due to the rising standard of living and a booming global market.

Question 16.
Explain any five characteristics of hightech industry in the world. (Delhi 2019)
Answer:
(i) Professional workers make up a large share of the total workforce.
(ii) Neatly spaced, low and modern offices and factories, along with planned business parks for hightech start-ups are its characteristics.
(iii) Hightech industry is regionally. Concentrated, self sustained and highly specialised and known as technopolies.
(iv) For hightech start ups planned business parks have become part of regional and local developments.
(v) Hightech industries are the latest generation of manufacturing activities.

Question 17.
Describe any three characteristics of ‘Household industries.’(C.B.S.E.2014)
Answer:
Characteristics of household industries :

• It is the smallest manufacturing unit. They use simple tools. The scale of operation is small.
• The craft spersons or artisans produce everyday goods in their homes with the help of their family members.
• These goods are locally marketed as finished goods.
  Examples : Common everyday products are foodstuffs, fabrics, mats, containers, tools, shoes, furniture, pottery, etc.

Question 18.
Explain any four features of small manufacturing. (C.B.S.E. 2014)
Answer:
Characteristics :

• Small manufacturing uses local raw materials.
• Semi-skilled labour is used.
• The goods are sold in local markets.
• It provides employment in large number.

Question 19.
(i) Distinguish between Private Sector and Public Sector.
Answer:

Private Sector	Public Sector
1.  The industries owned and managed by individuals are said to be under private sector.	1. The industries owned collectively by a community or the government means public sector.
2. Many industries run by capitalists like Birla, Tata are under private sector.	2. Schools, public buildings nationalised industries are under public sector. Bhilai Steel Plant is under public sector.
3. Private sector runs under strong compe­tition as in Japan and U.S.A.	3. Public sector runs on socialistic pattern such as Russia and India.

(ii) Distinguish between Agro-Industries and Heavy Industries.
Or
Describe any three characterstics of agro based industries in the world. (C.B.S.E. Outside Delhi Set-II 2017)
Answer:

Agro-Industries	Heavy Industries
1. Agro-industries are based on products of primary occupations such as agriculture.	1. Heavy industries are based on manufactured goods involving use of machines.
2.    Agricultural products are processed to useful products such as tex­tiles from cotton, sugar from sugarcane.	2. A number of complex products are manu­factured from semi finished goods as iron used in the making of machinery.
3.  These are labour­intensive industries.	3. These are capital­intensive industries.
4. These cover small scale and medium scale industries.	4. These cover large sea industries.

(iii) Differentiate between small scale manufacturing and large scale manufacturing. (C.B.S.E. 2018)
Answer:

large scale manufacturing	Small scale manufacturing
1. Large scale industries use power driven heavy machines.	1. Small scale industries use small power driven machines.
2. Large amount of capital is invested.	2. A small amount of capital is invested.
3. These industries form the basis of development in developed countries.	3. These industries provide employment in developing countries.

Secondary Activities Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Classify industries on different bases.
Answer:
Classification of Industries
Industries can be classified in many ways like-size, nature of products, raw materials, ownership, inputs and outputs.

1. Classification by Size
The amount of capital invested, number of people employed and the volume of production determines the size of an industry. Accordingly, industries may be classified into the following groups:
(a) Cottage or household
(b) Small scale and
(c) Large scale industries.

(a) Cottage or household industries. These are smallest manufacturing units. The craftsmen or the artisans with the help of their partime labour i.e., family members manufacture goods within their homes. These use local raw material and simple tools. The skills of production are passed on from one generation to the other.

The scale of operation is small. The tools and equipments are ordinary. The goods produced are generally sold locally. Example : Thus potters, carpenters, weavers and blacksmiths produce goods in the household sector.

(b) Small scale industries. They use modem power driven machines and employ semi skilled labour as well. The raw materials are also obtained from outside, if not available locally. These industries are larger in size than cottage industries. Their products are sold through traders beyond local markets. They provide employment to a large number of people.

Example : In countries like India, Brazil, Indonesia and China, a large number of goods such as clothes, toys, furniture, edible oil and leather goods are produced by small scale industries.

(c) Large scale industries. These include mainly heavy and capital intensive industries. These use energy, heavy machineries, employ large number of workers and produce goods for a bigger market. Emphasis is laid on quality control and production specialisation. Such industries require a very large resource base and hence raw materials are obtained from various places. The production of goods is also on a large scale, which is sent to distant markets.

These industries, therefore, require good infrastructure facilities such as roads, railways and power supply.
Example : Iron and steel industry, petro-chemicals, textiles and automobiles fall under this category in U.K., U.S.A and Europe. These are located in Large scale industrial regions and High-technology regions.

2. On the basis of size of operation and the nature of products. There are two classes of industries,
(i) Heavy industries are of large scale. They deal in bulky products and are heavily dependent on the raw materials
and hence tend to be located near the source of raw material e.g. iron and steel industry,

(ii) Light industries are usually small-scale in operation. They deal in fighter and compact products. For them, accessibility is the most important factor. Example : The electronics is one example of this kind.

3. Classification by Outputs
(a) Basic industries. Industries whose products are used to produce other goods are called basic industries. Iron and steel industry is one of the basic industries because steel produced by this industry is used in many other industries as a raw material. Some basic industries produce machines which are used to produce other goods.

(b) Consumer Goods Industries. Industries which produce goods for direct consumption such as tea, bread, soap and television are known as non-basic or consumer goods industries.

4. Classification by Inputs. Depending upon the raw materials used for the industries, they may be classified as agro-based, forest-based, metallic industries and chemical industries.
(a) Agro-based Industries. These utilise agricultural products as raw materials. Cotton, tea, sugar and, food-processing, vegetable oil industries Eire its examples.

(b) Forest-based Industries. These utilise forest products as raw materials e.g. paper and furniture industry.

(c) Mineral-based Industries. These use minerals as raw materials, such as, iron, cement, copper, etc.

(d) Metallic Industries. Industries based on metals are known as metallic industries. These are further divided into ferrous and non-ferrous industries. Industries based on metals having iron content are called ferrous industries e.g. iron and steel industry. On the other hand, industries based on metals without iron content fall into the category of non-ferrous industries e.g. copper and aluminium.

(e) Chemical Industries. Industries based on chemicals are called chemical industries e.g. petro-chemical, plastics, synthetics, fibres and pharmaceuticals. Some of these industries use raw materials found naturally e.g. minerals such as mineral- oil, salts, sulphur and potash, and vegetable products such as pulp. Some chemical industries use the byproducts of other industries.

(f) Animal based industries such as leather, wool.

5. Classification by Ownership. On the basis of the ownership pattern and management practices, industries can be classified into Government or Public, Private and Joint Sectors.

(i) When the ownership and management of an industry is in the hands of the state, it is called a public sector industry. The state establishes and runs these units.

(ii) Industries owned and managed by an individual or a corporate body belong to the private sector.

(iii) When individuals invest their own capital to establish industries, they manage them as private enterprise. Sometimes individuals join together under partnership to establish industries. The share of partners both in the capital investment and profits is pre-deeided. Industries are also established by corporations. Such a body is formed by individuals or organisations to fulfill pre-determined objectives and goals. Capital for the industry is collected by selling shares.

Question 2.
Explain the locational factors of industries with the help of suitable examples. (C.B.S.E. 2013)
Answer:
Manufacturing. Manufacturing is a secondary process of transforming raw materials into finished products. The raw materials of agriculture, forests, minerals are changed into new products. For example, clay is changed into pottery; timber is changed into furniture. These manufactured goods are more useful and valuable than the raw materials. The location of manufacturing industries depends on a number of physical and socio-economic factors. These factors are called the basis of industries. No single factor decides the location of industries.

1. Nearness to raw materials. Large quantities of raw materials are needed for industries. Therefore, industries are located near the source of raw materials. The industries are located near mines, forests, farms and seas. It saves the cost of transportation. Sugar mills are located in the areas where sugarcane is produced.

Iron and steel industry uses bulky raw materials. Steel centres are developed where coal and iron are easily available. Industries producing perishable goods (meat, fish and dairy products) are located near the areas of production. Example: Jute mills in West Bengal and Cotton Textile mills in Maharashtra are located due to the availability of the raw materials.

2. Power resources. Coal, oil and water power are the main sources of power. Most of the industries are located around coal-fields. The industrial regions of Damodar Valley (India) and Ruhr Valley (Germany) depend upon coal.

Some industries use large amount of electricity. Such industries like chemical industries, aluminium industries and paper industry are located near hydro electric stations, Petro-chemical Industries use large quantities of petroleum. Example : Iron and steel centres in India are located near Jharia and Raniganj coal-fields. Chemical fertilizer plant is located at Nangal where cheap water power is available from Bhakra Project.

3. Means of transportation. Modern industries need cheap, developed arid quick means of transportation. Water-transport is the cheapest means of transport. Cheap means of transportation are required for the movement of workers, raw materials and machinery to the factories.

Manufactured goods should be sent to the market at low cost. Example : The great industrial regions of the world (Europe and the U.S.A.) lie at the ends of North Atlantic Ocean Route. Great Lakes provide cheap transport to the industrial region of the U.S.A.

4. Climate : Stimulating climate increases the efficiency of the labourers. Certain industries require special type of climate. Cotton Textile industry requires humid climate. Film industry needs good weather with clear blue sky. Areas with favourable climate become huge markets.

Examples : Mumbai is the leading centre of Cotton Textile due to wet coastal climate. Dry climate has led to the location of Aircraft Industry at Bengaluru (India) and California (U.S.A.).

5. Capital. Large amount of capital is invested in many industries. Many industries have been located in big cities like Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata. Many banks and companies provide capital in these areas.

6. Skilled labour. Cheap and skilled labour is essential for the location of the industries. Areas of dense population provide cheap and large labour force. Engineering industries need skilled labour.

Example: Cotton Textile industry in Lancashire, Glass industries in Ferozabad, Sports goods industry in Jalandhar are located due to availability of the skilled labour. The Swiss are known for watch making, the British for specialised cotton textiles, the Japanese for electronic goods and Varanasi is known for silk embroidery.

7. Cheap land. Heavy industries need cheap level land. Steel industry at Jamshedpur is located in a broad river-valley.

8. Government policies. Most of the industries are located with government aid. Government policies may encourage or discourage the industries in an area. Government may offer cheap land, reduce taxes; help in providing machinery and transport.

9. Nearness to market. Industries are located near the market for the manufactured goods. Urban and industrial centres with dense population provide a large market. Market is based on demand and the purchasing power of the people. Countries of Asia don’t make a huge market because the people cannot afford to buy goods. Dairy industries are located near the ready markets of towns. Light Engineering industries are located near the big factories which require these goods. Aircraft and arm industry have a global market.

10. Early start. Momentum of an early start leads to the location of an industry such as Cotton Textile in Mumbai.

11. Defence. Some industries are located with a military motive such as Aircraft industry at Bengaluru.

Question 3.
Describe the location and development of iron and steel industry in different countries of the world.
Answer:
Iron and steel industry. Iron and steel industry is the basis of modern industrialisation. It is the foundation of modem machines, tools, transportation (rail, road, water, air). It is used in making superstructures, bridges, tanks, agricultural implements and many products of daily use. It has great strength, toughness, elasticity and low cost of production. The production and consumption of steel is the index of the economic development of country. Ours is truly an ‘age of steel’.

Factors for the location of Industry.

• Raw materials. Iron and steel industry needs the bulky raw materials of manganese, limestone and scrap iron.
• Coking coal. Coking coal or charcoal is required for smelting of iron ore.
• Cheap land. Modem steel plants, furnaces require cheap level land.
• Market. The products of iron and steel industry demand a big consuming market.
• Capital. Iron and steel industry requires huge capital. Lack of capital is a main obstacle to this industry in developing countries.
• Other Factors. Iron and steel industry needs cheap transport, skilled labour and modern techniques.

World Production

During the last 50 years, world production of steel has increased six times. This industry is widely distributed in many countries.

Main Countries:
1. Russia. Russia is the largest producer of iron and steel in the world.
Main areas
(i) Ukraine region. Southern Ukraine (near Black Sea) is the oldest and the leading iron and steel producing region. Stalino Rostov and Voroshilovsk, Krivoirog, Donetsk are the main centres of steel production.
(ii) Ural region: Magnitogorsk and Chelyabisk are chief steel centres.
(iii) Moscow region: Moscow, Tula and Gorky are the main centres.
(iv) Other areas: Stalinsk, Vladivostok, Tashkent, St. Petersberg, Tbilisi are other important centres of iron and steel industry.

2. U.S.A. The U.S.A. is the second largest producer of iron and steel in the world. Pittsberg-Youngstown is the leading centre of iron and steel industry.

The important steel centres :
(i) Pittsberg : Youngstown Region. (Rust Bowl of U.S.A.)
(ii) Great Lakes Region with:

(a) Duluth on Superior Lake.

(b) Chicago and Gary on Michigan Lake.

(c) Detroit, Erie, Cleveland and Buffalo on Lake Erie.
(iii) Birmingham: Alabama Region.
(iv) Mid-Atlantic region with steel plants at Sparrow point, Bethleham and Morrisville.
(v) The western states with centres as Puebelo, Tocoma, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Fontana.

3. Japan : Japan with 15% steel production is the third largest producer of iron and steel.

Main Centres:

• Moji-Nagasaki region has Yawata Steel centre.
• Kamaishi in Honshu island.
• Mororan in Hokkaido island.
• Kobe-Osaka region.
• Tokyo-Yokohama region.

4. Germany: Iron and steel industry is centred in Westphalian Region in Ruhr Valley. The important steel producing centres are Essen, Bochum, Dortmund, Dusseldorf and Solingen. Germany has large reserves of coking coal, but iron ore is imported from Sweden. Rivers and canals provide cheap transport. Lecruresat and St. Ettienne are in France.

5. Great Britain : Great Britain has been the pioneer in steel industry. It was the largest producer of steel in the world till 1890. This region has advantage of an early start, local deposits of coal and iron ore, technical knowledge, cheap transport and huge demand. The main steel centres are :

• South Wales—Cardiff.
• N.E. Coast—New Castle, Middles Borough and Darlington.
• Yorkshire—Sheffields (famous for cutlery goods).
• Midland -Region-—Birmingham (known as Black country).
• Scotland—Glasgow.
• Lincolnshire—Fordingham.

6. China : China has made rapid progress in steel industry. China is the largest steel producer in Asia.

Main Centres

• Manchuria—Anshan and Mukden.
• Yangtz valley—Wuhan, Shanghai.
• Shensi—Shansi Region—Beijing, Tientsin.
• Canton, Tsingtao, Chinlingchen, Hupeh.

7. India: The first modem steel plant was established in 1907 at Sakchi (Jamshedpur) in Bihar, by Jamshedji Tata. India produces the cheapest steel in the world. India produces 320 lakh tons of steel and 100 lakh tons
of pig iron. With the establishment of new steel plants, it is expected to reach 500 lakh tons of steel.
Centres of production:

I. Damodar Valley. This region has TISCO (Tata Iron and Steel Company) steel plant at Jamshedpur and IISCO (Indian Iron and Steel Company) steel plant, at Kulti- Bumpur.

II. Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel Limited. This steel plant is located at Bhadravati (Karnataka). It produces alloy and special steel.

III. Steel Centres in Public Sector—Four steel plants have been developed in the public sector, under HSL (Hindustan Steel Limited) with the collaboration of some foreign countries.

• Bhilai (Chhattisgarh)—With the help of Russia.
• Rourkela (Odisha)—By German Firm Krupps — Demag.
• Durgapur (W. Bengal)—With British aid.
• Boka.ro (Jharkhand)—With Russian help.

IV. New Steel Plants. The government has decided to set up three new plants by Sail at:

• Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh)
• Salem (Tamil Nadu).
• Vijaynagar (Near Hospet, Karnataka).

Question 4.
Write a short note on Silicon Valley.
Answer:
‘Silicon Valley’ technopolis :
The development of Silicon valley is attributed to the work of Frederick Terman, a professor and later, Vice-President of Stanford University at Palo Alto, in the northwestern part of Santa Clara country in California. In 1930s, Terman encouraged his students in electrical engineering to stay in the areas and establish their own companies.

One of the first companies was set up by William Hewlett and David Packard in a garage near the University campus. Now it is one of the world’s largest electronic firms. By the end of 1950s Terman had persuaded Stanford University to develop a special industrial park for such new high-tech firms. It created a hot house of innovation and generating a significant specialized work force and produce services.

It has sustained the continued agglomeration of high-tech electronics and has also attracted other high-tech industries. For example, nearly a third of all employment in biotechnology in the USA is located in California. Of this, over 90 percent is located in the San Francisco Bay area. Stanford University has been receiving increasing amount of donations from grateful companies, which runs into millions of dollars annually.

Secondary Activities Important Extra Questions HOTS

Question 1.
Which is the most important industrial complex of Europe and why ?
Answer:
Rhine valley is the most important industrial complex of Europe. This complex extends from Switzerland to West Germany. Ruhr coalfield is located in this complex. Rail, Road, Water, Transport (canals and rivers) are available here. Local labour is available. Local demand is great due to dense population. Water power is abundantly available.

Question 2.
Why are developing countries less industrialised ?
Answer:
Manufacturing industries require capital. Market is also essential for these industries. But in developing countries, there is shortage of capital. People have low purchasing power. So there is less demand. Therefore, there is rather absence of industries in developing countries.